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"Christian doctrine" redirects here. It may also refer to the court case G.L. Christian and Associates v. United States.
Christian theology is discourse concerning Christian faith. Christian theologians use rational analysis and argument to understand, explain, test, critique, defend or promote Christianity. Theology might be undertaken to help the theologian understand Christianity more truly,[1] make comparisons between Christianity and other traditions,[2] defend Christianity against critics, facilitate Christianity's reform,[3] assist in the propagation of Christianity,[4] draw on the resources of the Christian tradition to address some present situation or need,[5] or for a variety of other reasons.
Christian theology has permeated much of Western culture, especially in pre-modern Europe. Therefore, because of their interdependence a proper understanding of either Western culture or Christian theology requires a full understanding of both.
The emergence of Christian theology
The emergence of Christian theology has sometimes been presented as the triumph of Hellenistic rationality over the Hebraic faith of Jesus and the early disciples. The early African theologian Tertullian, for instance, complained that the 'Athens' of philosophy was corrupting the 'Jerusalem' of faith.[6] More recent discussions have qualified and nuanced this picture.
- From the very beginning of the Christian movement, followers of Jesus tried to make sense of the impact of Jesus of Nazareth, and began arguing about differing ways of making sense. There has never been an uncontested, unrationalized Christian faith.[7].
- These processes of making sense initially drew upon the ideas and narratives of contemporary Judaism, which was already Hellenized in various degrees. As time went by, ideas and narratives from other Hellenistic context were drawn on, but the Jewish scriptures remained a key driver of theological development, and too sharp a distinction between Hebraic and Hellenistic is unsustainable. Some elements of early Christian theologizing previously thought to be thoroughly 'Hellenistic' (e.g., the Prologue of John's Gospel) are now regularly argued to be thoroughly Jewish.
- The ideas and narratives drawn on in this process were transformed as they were given a new context in Christian practices of devotion, community—formation and evangelism—and the extent to which borrowings from Hellenistic culture (for instance) were given new meanings in this process should not be underestimated.[8]
- One of the characteristics of those strands of early Christianity (in the second and third centuries) sometimes called 'proto-orthodox' (because they are the most direct ancestors of the forms of Christianity that in the fourth century were defined as Orthodox), invested a great deal of time and energy in communication between widely spread conversations, and in pursuing a deep interest in each other's beliefs and practices. This concern and communication seems to have been as much a driver of the development of theological activity as the desire to communicate Christianity to, or make it acceptable in, a Hellenistic culture.[9]
The history of Christian theology
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See also:
- the main theology article, which includes material on the history of the word "theology" in Christianity, and
- the main article on the history of theology, which presents the story of Christian, Jewish and Islamic theology.
Divisions of Christian theology
There are many methods of categorizing different approaches to Christian theology.
Sub-disciplines
Christian theologians may be specialists in one or more theological sub-disciplines. These are the kinds of phrases that one finds in certain job titles such as 'Professor of x', 'Senior Lecturer in y':
- Apologetics/polemics—studying Christian theology as it compares to non-Christian worldviews in order to defend the faith and challenge beliefs that lie in contrast with Christianity
- Biblical hermeneutics—interpretation of the Bible, often with particular emphasis on the nature and constraints of contemporary interpretation
- Biblical studies—interpretation of the Bible, often with particular emphasis on historical-critical investigation
- Biblical theology—interpretation of the Bible, often with particular emphasis on links between biblical texts and the topics of systematic or dogmatic theology
- Constructive theology—generally another name for systematic theology; also specifically a postmodernist approach to systematic theology, applying (among other things) feminist theory, queer theory, deconstructionism, and hermeneutics to theological topics
- Dogmatic theology—studying theology (or dogma) as it developed in different church denominations
- Ecumenical theology—comparing the doctrines of the diverse churches (such as Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic and the various Protestant denominations) with the goal of promoting unity among them
- Exegesis—interpretation of the Bible
- Historical theology—studying Christian theology from an historical perspective
- Homiletics—in theology the application of general principles of rhetoric to public preaching
- Moral theology—explores the moral and ethical dimensions of the religious life
- Natural theology—the discussion of those aspects of theology that can be investigated without the help of revelation scriptures or tradition (sometimes contrasted with "positive theology")
- Patristics or patrology—studies the teaching of Church Fathers, or the development of Christian ideas and practice in the period of the Church Fathers
- Philosophical theology—philosophical analysis of theological topics.
- Pragmatic or practical theology—studying theology as it relates to everyday living and service to God, including serving as a religious minister
- Spiritual theology—studying theology as a means to orthopraxy: Scripture and tradition are both used as guides for spiritual growth and discipline
- Systematic theology (doctrinal theology, dogmatic theology or philosophical theology)—focused on the attempt to arrange and interpret the ideas current in the religion. This is also associated with constructive theology
- Theological aesthetics—interdisciplinary study of theology and aesthetics / the arts
Major topics
These topics crop up again and again in Christian theology; they are the main recurrent 'loci' around which Christian theological discussion revolves.
- Bible--the nature and means of its inspiration, etc.; including hermeneutics (the development and study of theories of the interpretation and understanding of texts)
- Eschatology—the study of the last things, or end times. Covers subjects such as death and the afterlife, the end of history, the end of the world, the last judgment, the nature of hope and progress, etc.
- Christology—the study of Jesus Christ, of his nature(s), and of the relationship between his divinity and humanity;
- Creation theology
- Divine providence.
- Ecclesiology (sometimes a subsection of missiology)—the study of the Christian Church, including the institutional structure, sacraments and practices (especially the worship of God) thereof
- Missiology (sometimes a subsection of ecclesiology)—God's will in the world, missions, evangelism, etc.
- Pneumatology—the study of the Holy Spirit, sometimes also 'geist' as in Hegelianism and other philosophico-theological systems
- Soteriology—the study of the nature and means of salvation. May include Hamartiology (the study of sin), Law and Gospel (the study of the relationship between Divine Law and Divine Grace, justification, sanctification
- Theological anthropology—the study of humanity, especially as it relates to the divine
- Theology Proper—the study of God's attributes, nature, and relation to the world. May include:
- Theodicy--attempts at reconciling the existence of evil and suffering in the world with the nature and justice of God
- Apophatic theology--negative theology, sometimes contrasted with "cataphatic theology" (the discussion of what God is not, or the investigation of how language about God breaks down. See the nature of God in Western theology)
A classical pattern
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In many Christian seminaries, the four Great Departments of Theology are:
- Exegetical theology
- Historical theology
- Systematic theology
- Practical theology
The four departments can usefully be subdivided in the following way:
1. Exegetical theology:
- Biblical studies (analysis of the contents of Scripture)
- Biblical introduction (inquiry into the origins of the Bible)
- Canonics (inquiry into how the different books of the Bible came to be collected together)
- Biblical theology (inquiry into how divine revelation progressed over the course of the Bible).
2. Historical theology (study of how Christian theology develops over time):
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3. Systematic theology:
4. Practical theology:
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Roman Catholic theology
One important branch of Christian theology is Roman Catholic theology which has these major teachings:
Controversial movements
Christians have had theological disagreements since the time of Jesus. Theological disputes have given rise to many schisms and different Christian denominations, sects and movements.
Pre-Reformation
Post-Reformation
Since the Reformation emphasized the rights of Christians to expound their own views of theology, most theological distinctions have occurred between the various Protestant denominations. Some elaboration of Roman Catholic doctrines; however, have been promulgated since that time. The differences between many of the denominations are relatively minor, and this has helped ecumenical efforts in recent times.
- Adventism: Typified by the Seventh-day Adventist Church.
- Anabaptism
- Anglicanism
- Anglo-Catholicism: High church theology of Anglicanism.
- Arminianism: Reaction to Calvinist soteriology, which affirms man's freedom to accept or reject God's gift of salvation; identified with Dutch Reformed theologian Jacobus Arminius, developed by Hugo Grotius, defended by the Remonstrants, and popularized by John Wesley. Key doctrine of Anglican and Methodist churches, adopted by many Baptists and some Congregationalists.
- Brethrenism: Anabaptist-Pietist, with Open and Exclusive streams.
- Calvinism: System of soteriology advanced by French Reformer John Calvin, which espouses Augustinian views on election and reprobation; stresses absolute predestination, the sovereignty of God and the inability of man to effect his own salvation by believing the Gospel prior to regeneration; principle doctrines are often summarized by the acronym TULIP (see Canons of Dort).
- Charismaticism: Movement in many Protestant and some Catholic churches that emphasizes the gifts of the Spirit and the continual working of the Holy Spirit within the body of Christ; often associated with glossolalia (i.e., speaking in tongues) and divine healing.
- Congregationalism: Form of governance used in Congregationalist, Baptist, and Pentecostal churches in which each congregation is self-governing and independent of all others.
- Counter-Reformation (or Catholic Reformation): The Roman Catholic response to the Protestant Reformation (see also Council of Trent).
- Creation Spirituality: Panentheist theology.
- Deism: The general doctrine that no faith is necessary for justified belief in God's existence and/or the doctrine that God does not intervene in earthly affairs (contrasts with Fideism).
- Dispensationalism: Belief in a conservative, Biblically literalist hermeneutic and philosophy of history that, by stressing the dichotomy between Israel and the Church, rejects supercessionism (commonly referred to as "replacement theology").
- Evangelicalism: Typically conservative, predominantly Protestant outlook that prioritizes evangelism above all or most other activities of the Church (see also neo-evangelicalism).
- Fideism: The doctrine that faith is irrational, that God's existence transcends logic, and that all knowledge of God is on the basis of faith (contrasts with Deism).
- Latitudinarianism: Broad church theology of Anglicanism.
- Liberalism: Belief in interpreting the Bible to allow for the maximum amount of individual freedom.
- Low church: Puritanical / Evangelical theology of Anglicanism.
- Methodism: Form of church governance and doctrine used in the Methodist Church.
- Modernism: Belief that truth changes, so doctrine must evolve in light of new information or trends.
- Latter Day Saint movement (Mormonism): Belief that the Book of Mormon and others to be additional divine scriptures; belief in living prophets; generally reject the Nicene creed and other early creeds. Regarded as a distinct religion or pseudo-Christian cult by most Christian churches.
- New Thought: Movement based on 19th century New England belief in positive thinking. Several denominations arose from it including Unity Church, and Religious Science.
- Nonconformism: Advocacy of religious liberty; includes Quakers, Methodists, Baptists, Congregationalists and Salvationists.
- Nontrinitarianism: Rejection of the doctrine of Trinity.
- Pentecostalism
- Pietism: A stream of Lutheranism placing renewed emphasis on the Bible and a universal priesthood of all believers.
- Presbyterianism: Form of governance used in Presbyterian and Reformed churches.
- Puritanism: Movement to cleanse Episcopalianism of any "ritualistic" aspects.
- Supersessionism: Belief that the Christian Church, the body of Christ, is the only elect people of God in the new covenant age (see also covenant theology).
- Restoration Movement: 19th century attempt to return to a New Testament model of the Church.
- Restorationism: The doctrine that most of the modern Church is apostate; includes the Millerites, Seventh-day Adventists, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Latter Day Saints.
- Salvation Army: An offshoot of the Methodist Church known for its charitable activities
- Tractarianism: Oxford Movement. It led to Anglo-Catholicism.
- Ultramontanism: A movement within 19th-century Roman Catholicism to emphasize papal authority, particularly in the wake of the French Revolution and the secularization of the state
- Unification Church
- Unitarianism: Rejects a holy "Trinity" and also the divinity of Christ, with some exceptions (see modalism).
- Universalism: In various forms, the belief that all people will ultimately be reconciled with God; most famously defended by Origen.
Contemporary Theological movements
In addition to the movements listed above, the following are some of the movements found amongst Christian theologians:
Notes
- ^ See, e.g., Daniel L. Migliore, Faith Seeking Understanding: An Introduction to Christian Theology (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004)
- ^ See, e.g., David Burrell, Freedom and Creation in Three Traditions (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1994)
- ^ See, e.g., John Shelby Spong, Why Christianity Must Change or Die (New York: Harper Collins, 2001)
- ^ See, e.g., Duncan Dormor et al (eds), Anglicanism, the Answer to Modernity (London: Continuum, 2003)
- ^ For example, see Timothy Gorringe, Crime, Changing Society and the Churches Series (London:SPCK, 2004)
- ^ Tertullian, De praescriptione haereticorum 7.
- ^ See, for example, Stephen Sykes, The Identity of Christianity (London: SPCK, 1984) or Wayne Meeks, 'Inventing the Christ: multicultural process and poetry among the first Christians', Studia Theologica 58.1, pp.77-96, for arguments along these lines
- ^ Larry Hurtado, Lord Jesus Christ (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003)
- ^ See Rowan Williams, 'Does it make sense to speak of pre – Nicene orthodoxy?' in idem (ed.) The Making of Orthodoxy (Cambridge: CUP, 1989), pp.1-23.
References
- Andcone, J.H., eds. Black Theology; A Documentary History, 1966–1979. Orbis Books, 1979
- Appiah-Kubi, K and Torres, S., eds. African Theology en Route, Orbis Books, 1979
- Bonino, J.M. Doing theology in a Revolutionary situation, Philadelphia:Fortress Press, 1975.
- Christian Theology Reader by Alister McGrath. ISBN 0–631–20637-X
- Christian Theology: An Introduction by Alister McGrath. ISBN 0–631–22528–5
- Elwood, D.J., ed. Asian Christian Theology; Emerging Themes. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1979
- Fuller, Reginald H. The Foundations of New Testament Christology (1965). ISBN 0–684–15532-X
- Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity (1984, 1985, 1999). ISBN 1–56563–522–1)
- Hill, Jonathan 2003) The History of Christian Thought. ISBN 0–7459–5093–0 and 0830827765
- Koyama, Kosuke, Waterbuffalo Theology. Orbis books, 1974
- Leith, John H. Introduction to the Reformed Tradition (1978). ISBN 0–8042–0479–9)
- Miranda, J. Being and the Messiah. Orbis Books, 1974.
- Moore, B., ed. The Challenge of Black Theology in South Africa. Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1974.
- Muzorewa, H. African Theology: Its Origin and Development. Orbis Books, 1984.
- Sobrino, J. Christology on the Crossroads. Orbis Books, 1978
- Systematic Theology, an ecumenical trilogy by Thomas Oden
- Volume 1: The Living God (1992). ISBN 0–06–066363–4
- Volume 2: The Word of Life (1992). ISBN 0–06–066364–2
- Volume 3: Life in the Spirit (1994). ISBN 0–06–066362–6
See also
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bg:Християнска теология da:Kristen teologi de:Christliche Theologie es:Teología cristiana fr:Théologie chrétienne ia:Theologia christian he:תאולוגיה נוצרית lb:Chrëschtlech Theologie no:Kristen teologi nn:Kristen teologi pt:Teologia cristã ro:Teologie creştină simple:Christian theology fi:Kristillinen teologia th:คริสต์ศาสนวิทยา tr:Hıristiyan teolojisi
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