Qur'an

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The Qur’ān ^[1] (Arabic: القرآن ‎ al-qur'ān, literally "the recitation"; also sometimes transliterated as Qur’an, Koran, Alcoran or Al-Qur’ān) is the central religious text of Islam. Muslims believe that the Qur’ān is the book of divine guidance and direction for mankind, and consider the text (in the original Arabic) to be the final, divine revelation of God.^[2][3][4][5] Islam holds that the Qur’ān was revealed to Muhammad by the angel Gibraele (Gabriel) over a period of 23 years.^[2][6][7] The importance of the Quran for Muslims and Islam is tantamount to the importance of Jesus Christ for Christians and Christianity.^[8]

Muslims regard the Qur'ān as the culmination of a series of divine messages that started with those revealed to Adam, who is regarded in Islam as the first prophet, and continued with the Suhuf-i-Ibrahim (Scrolls of Abraham),^[9] the Tawrat (Torah),^[10][11] the Zabur (Psalms),^[12][13] and the Injeel (Gospel).^[14][15][16] The aforementioned books are not explicitly included in the Qur’ān, but are recognized in the Qur'ān.^[17][18]

The Qur’ān also refers^[19] to many events from Jewish and Christian scriptures, retelling some of these events in comparatively distinctive ways from the Bible and the Torah, while obliquely referring to other events described explicitly in those texts.

The Qur’ān rarely offers detailed accounts of historical events; the text instead places emphasis typically on the moral significance of an event rather than its narrative sequence. Details to historical events are contained within the Hadith of Muhammad and the narrations of Muhammad's Companions (Sahabah).

The Qur'an was written down by Muhammad's companions (sahabah) while he was alive, although the prime method of transmission was orally. It was compiled in the time of Abu Bakr, the first caliph, and was standardized in the time of Uthman, the third caliph. The Qur'an in its actual form is generally considered by academic scholars to record the words spoken by Muhammad because the search for variants in Western academia has not yielded any differences of great significance and that historically controversy over the content of the Qur'an has never become a main point. ^[20][21] Therefore all Muslims, Sunni or Shia use the same Quran.

Etymology and meaning

The original usage of the word qur`ān is in the Qur’ān itself, where it occurs about 70 times assuming various meanings. It is a verbal noun (maṣdar) of the Arabic verb qara`a (Arabic: قرأ), meaning "he read" or "he recited", and represents the Syriac equivalent qeryānā which refers to "scripture reading" or "lesson". While most Western scholars consider the word to be derived from the Syriac, the majority of Muslim authorities hold the origin of the word is qara`a itself.<sup>[22]</sup> In any case, it had become an Arabic term by Muhammad's lifetime.<sup>[2]</sup> As per verse of Al-Quran 10:37,Quran (Reading) is confirmation of what in between his two hands and details of Al-kitab. Among the earliest meanings of the word Qur’ān is the "act of reciting", for example in a Qur’ānic passage: "Ours is it to put it together and [Ours is] its qur`ān".^[23] In other verses it refers to "an individual passage recited [by Muhammad]". In the large majority of contexts, usually with a definite article (al-), the word is referred to as the "revelation" (tanzīl), that which has been "sent down" at intervals.^[24][25] Its liturgical context is seen in a number of passages, for example: "So when al-qur`ān is recited , listen to it and keep silent".^[26] The word may also assume the meaning of a codified scripture when mentioned with other scriptures such as the Torah and Gospel.^[27]

The term also has closely related synonyms which are employed throughout the Qur’ān. Each of the synonyms possess their own distinct meaning, but their use may converge with that of qur`ān in certain contexts. Such terms include kitāb ("book"); āyah ("sign"); and sūrah ("scripture"). The latter two terms also denote units of revelation. Other related words are: dhikr, meaning "remembrance," used to refer to the Qur’ān in the sense of a reminder and warning; and hikma, meaning "wisdom," sometimes referring to the revelation or part of it.^[22][28]

^{[Qur'an 10:37]}The Qur'an has many other names^{[citation needed]}. Among those found in the text itself are al-Furqan ("discernment"), Umm al-Kitab (the "mother book", or "archetypal book"), al-huda ("the guide"), Dhikrallah ("the remembrance of God"), al-Hikmah ("wisdom'), and Kalamallah ("the word of God"). Another term is Al-Kitab ("the book"), though it is also used in the Arabic language for other scriptures^{[citation needed]}, such as the Torah and the Gospels. The term mushaf ("written work") is usually used to refer to particular manuscripts of the Qur’ān but is also used in the Qur’ān to identify earlier revealed books.^[2]

Structure

Main articles: Sura and Ayah

The Qur’ān consists of 114 chapters of varying lengths, each known as a sura. The title of each sura is derived from a name or quality discussed in the text or from the first letters or words of the sura. Muslims believe that Muhammad himself, on God's command, gave the suras their names.^[2] In general, the longer chapters appear earlier in the Qur’ān, while the shorter ones appear later. As such, the arrangement is not connected to the sequence of revelation. Each chapter, with the exception of one, commences with the Basmala bismi-llahi ar-raḥmani ar-raḥimi,^[29][30]

Each Sura is formed from several Ayahs or verses which originally means a sign or portent sent by God. The number of the ayahs aren't the same in various Suras. An individual ayah may be just a few letters or several lines. The ayahs are unlike the highly refined poetry of the pre-Islamic Arabs in their content and distinctive rhymes and rhythms, being more akin to the prophetic utterances marked by inspired discontinuities found in the sacred scriptures of Judaism and Christianity. Since the beginning of Islam, the proper number of ayahs has been a controversial issue among Muslim scholars, some recognizing 6,000, some 6,204, some 6,219, and some 6,236, although the words in all cases are the same. The most popular edition of the Qur’ān, which is based on the tradition of the school of Kufa, contains 6,236 ayahs.^[2]

There is a crosscutting division into 30 parts, juz's, each containing two units called hizbs, each of which in turn is divided into four parts (rub 'al-ahzabs). These divisions facilitate the reading of the Qur’ān over periods of different lengths. The Qur’ān is also divided into seven stations (manazils) for reciting the whole text during one week.^[2]

The text of the Qur’ān seems outwardly to have no beginning, middle, or end; its nonlinear structure is akin to a web or a net.^[2] Some critics have also commented on the arrangement of the Qur’ānic text with accusations of lack of continuity, absence of any chronological or thematic order, and presence of repetition.^[31][32]

Literary structure

The Qur’ān's message is conveyed through the use of a variety of literary structures and devices. In its original Arabic idiom, the individual components of the text — surahs and ayat — employ phonetic and thematic structures that assist the audience's efforts to recall the message of the text. There is consensus amongst Arab scholars to use the Qur’ān as a standard by which other Arabic literature should be measured. Muslims assert (in accordance with the Qur’ān itself) that the Qur’ānic content and style is inimitable.^[33]

Richard Gottheil and Siegmund Fränkel in the Jewish Encyclopedia write that the oldest portions of the Qur’ān reflect significant excitement in their language, through short and abrupt sentences and sudden transitions. The Qur’ān nonetheless carefully maintains the rhymed form, like the oracles. Some later portions also preserve this form but also in a style where the movement is calm and the style expository.^[34]

Michael Sells, citing the work of the critic Norman O. Brown, acknowledges Brown's observation that the seeming "disorganization" of Qur’ānic literary expression — its "scattered or fragmented mode of composition," in Sells's phrase — is in fact a literary device capable of delivering "profound effects — as if the intensity of the prophetic message were shattering the vehicle of human language in which it was being communicated."^[35][36] Sells also addresses the much-discussed "repetitiveness" of the Qur’ān, seeing this, too, as a literary device.

"The values presented in the very early Meccan revelations are repeated throughout the hymnic Suras. There is a sense of directness, of intimacy, as if the hearer were being asked repeatedly a simple question: what will be of value at the end of a human life?"^[35]

Qur'an as a religious text

Muslims believe the Qur'an to be the book of divine guidance and direction for mankind and consider the text in its original Arabic to be the literal word of God,^[37] revealed to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel over a period of twenty-three years^[38][39] and view the Qur'an as God's final revelation to humanity.^{[40][41][6][7][42]} The importance of the Quran for Muslims and Islam is tantamount to the importance of Jesus Christ for Christians and Christianity.^[43]

The Christian concept of revelation which means God unveiling himself and become visible and audible for mankind is foreign to Islam. Wahy in Islamic and Qur'anic concept means the act of God addressing individual, conveying a massage for a greater number of recipients. The process by which Divine massage come to the heart of messenger of God is "Tanzil"(to send down) or "Nuzul"(to come down). As Qur'an says "With the truth we(God) have sent it down and with the truth it has come down." It designates positive religion, the letter of the revelation dictated by the Angel to the prophet. It means to cause this revelation to descend from the higher world. Of course according to Hadith the verses were sent down in especial circumstances which are known as Asbab al-nuzul. But it should be noticed that in this view God, himself, is never the subject of coming down.^{[44][45] [46]}

Not only do Muslim believe in the divine origin of Qur'an, but also Qur'an, itself, insist on this feature frequently. Qur'an is the most meta-textual, self-referential religious text among the all religious texts which refers so often to its own textual nature and reflects constantly to its divine origin. Qur'an refers to a written pre-text and this pre-text records God's speech even before it's sent down. ^[47][48]

The eternal or created nature of Quran is one of the crucial problems among early Muslim theologians. Mu'tazilis believe it's created while the most widespread varieties of Muslim theologians consider the Qur'an to be eternal and uncreated.

Muslims maintain that the wording of the present Qur’ānic text corresponds exactly to that revealed to Muhammad himself: as the words of God, said to be delivered to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel. The Qur'ān is not only considered by Muslims to be a guide but also as a sign of the prophethood of Muhammad and the truth of the religion. Muslims argue that it is not possible for a human to produce a book like the Qur’ān, as the Qur'ān states:

"And if ye are in doubt as to what We have revealed from time to time to Our servant, then produce a Sura like thereunto; and call your witnesses or helpers (If there are any) besides God, if your (doubts) are true. But if ye cannot- and of a surety ye cannot- then fear the Fire whose fuel is men and stones,- which is prepared for those who reject Faith.^[49]

History of Qur'an

The neutrality of this section is disputed. Please see the discussion on the talk page. This section has been tagged since December 2007.

Main article: Origin and development of the Qur'an

The Prophet era

See also: Wahy

According to Hadith and Muslim history, After Prophet emigrated to Medina and formed an independent Muslim community, ordered a considerable number of the companions(sahabah) to recite the Qur'an and to learn and teach the laws which were being revealed daily. Those of this group who engaged in the recitation of the Qur'an were called qurra'. Since most of the Prophet's companions were unable to read or write, the Prophet ordered them to learn from the prisoners-of-war the simple writing of the time. Thus a group of the companions gradually became literate. The Qur'an was recorded, as it was revealed, on tablets, bones and the wide flat end of the date palm fronds. Most chapters were in use amongst early Muslims since they are mentioned in numerous sayings by both Sunni and Shiiah sources, relating the Prophet's use of the Qur'an as a call to Islam, the making of prayer and the manner of recitation. However The Qur’ān did not exist in book form at the time of Muhammad's death in 632.^[50][51]

Welch, a scholar of Islamic studies, states in the Encyclopedia of Islam that he believes the graphic descriptions of Muhammad's condition at these moments may be regarded as genuine, seeing as he was severely disturbed after these revelations. According to Welch, these seizures would have been seen as convincing evidence for the superhuman origin of Muhammad's inspirations by the people around him. Muhammad's enemies, however, accused him of being a man who was possessed, or of being a soothsayer or magician since his claimed experiences were similar to those made by those soothsayer figures well known in ancient Arabia. Additionally, Welch states that it remains uncertain whether these experiences occurred before or after Muhammad began to see himself as a prophet.^[52]

The Quran states that Muhammad was ummi, interpreted as illiterate in Muslim tradition. According to Watt, the meaning of the Qur’ānic term ummi is unscriptured rather than illiterate as Muslim tradition has concluded. Watt argues that a certain amount of writing was necessary for Muhammad to perform his commercial duties though it seems certain that he had not read any scriptures.

Making Mushaf

See also: Mus'haf and Tahrif

According to Shia as well as some Sunni scholars Ali compiled a complete version of the Qur'an, Mushaf.^[2] immediately after death of Prophet. The order of this mushaf differed from the mushaf which was gathered later during Uthman era. Despite this, Ali made no objection or resistance against standardized mushaf, but kept his own book. ^[50][53]

When the Battle of Yamama took place in which seventy of the reciters were killed, the caliph, Abu Bakr, decided the idea of collecting the different chapters and verses into one volume. Thus a group of the reciters including Zayd ibn Thabit collected the chapters and verses, and produced several hand-written copies of the complete Book. ^[54][50]

In about 650 As Islam expanded beyond the Arabian peninsula into Persia, Levant and North Africa, the third Caliph, Uthman ibn Affan, ordered a standardized version to be prepared to preserve the sanctity of the text and to establish a definitive spelling for all time. Therefor five of the reciters from amongst the companions produce a unique text from the first volume which had been prepared on the orders of the first Caliph and which had been kept with Hafsa bint Umar. The other copies already in the hands of Muslims in other areas, were collected and sent to Medina where, on orders of the Caliph, they were destroyed by burning or boiling. This remains the authoritative text of the Qur’ān to this day.^[55][56][50]

The Qur'an in its actual form is generally considered by academic scholars to record the words spoken by Muhammad because the search for variants in Western academia has not yielded any differences of great significance and that historically controversy over the content of the Qur'an has never become a main point. ^[57]

Literary usage

In addition to and largely independent of the division into surahs, there are various ways of dividing the Qur'ān into parts of approximately equal length for convenience in reading, recitation and memorization. The Qur'ān is divided into thirty ajza' (parts). The thirty parts can be used to work through the entire Qur’ān in a week or a month. Some of these parts are known by names and these names are the first few words by which the Juz starts. A juz' is sometimes further divided into two ahzab (groups), and each hizb is in turn subdivided into four quarters. A different structure is provided by the ruku'at (sing. Raka'ah), semantical units resembling paragraphs and comprising roughly ten ayat each. Some also divide the Qur'ān into seven manazil (stations).

Recitation

The very word Qur'ān means "recitation", though there is little instruction in the Qur’ān itself as to how it is to be recited. The main principle it does outline is: rattil il-Qur’āna tartilan ("and recite the Qur’ān in slow, measured rhythmic tones").^{[Qur'an 73:4] Yusuf Ali} Tajwid is the term for techniques of recitation, and assessed in terms of how accessible the recitation is to those intent on concentrating on the words.^[58]

To perform salat (prayer), a mandatory obligation in Islam, a Muslim is required to learn at least some suras of the Qur'ān (typically starting with the first sura, al-Fatiha, known as the "seven oft-repeated verses," and then moving on to the shorter ones at the end). Until one has learned al-Fatiha, a Muslim can only say phrases like "praise be to God" during the salat.

A person whose recital repertoire encompasses the whole Qur'ān is called a qari' (قَارٍئ), whereas a memoriser of the Qur’ān is called a hafiz (fem. Hafaz) (which translate as "reciter" or "protector," respectively). Muhammad is regarded as the first qari' since he was the first to recite it. Recitation (tilawa تلاوة) of the Qur'ān is a fine art in the Muslim world.

Schools of recitation

Main article: Qira'at

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Page of a 13th century Qur’ān, showing Sura 33: 73

There are several schools of Qur’ānic recitation, all of which are possible pronunciations of the Uthmanic rasm: Seven reliable, three permissible and (at least) four uncanonical - in 8 sub-traditions each - making for 80 recitation variants altogether.^[59] For a recitation to be canonical it must conform to three conditions:

1. It must match the rasm, letter for letter.
2. It must conform with the syntactic rules of the Arabic language.
3. It must have a continuous isnad to Muhammad through tawatur, meaning that it has to be related by a large group of people to another down the isnad chain.

These recitations differ in the vocalization (tashkil تشكيل) of a few words, which in turn gives a complementary meaning to the word in question according to the rules of Arabic grammar. For example, the vocalization of a verb can change its active and passive voice. It can also change its stem formation, implying intensity for example. Vowels may be elongated or shortened, and glottal stops (hamzas) may be added or dropped, according to the respective rules of the particular recitation. For example, the name of archangel Gabriel is pronounced differently in different recitations: Jibrīl, Jabrīl, Jibra'īl, and Jibra'il. The name "Qur'ān" is pronounced without the glottal stop (as "Qurān") in one recitation, and prophet Abraham's name is pronounced Ibrāhām in another.^{[citation needed]} The more widely used narrations are those of Hafss (حفص عن عاصم), Warsh (ورش عن نافع), Qaloon (قالون عن نافع) and Al-Duri according to Abu `Amr (الدوري عن أبي عمرو). Muslims firmly believe that all canonical recitations were recited by Muhammad himself, citing the respective isnad chain of narration, and accept them as valid for worshipping and as a reference for rules of Sharia. The uncanonical recitations are called "explanatory" for their role in giving a different perspective for a given verse or ayah. Today several dozen persons hold the title "Memorizer of the Ten Recitations." This is considered to be a great accomplishment among the followers of Islam.^{[citation needed]}

The presence of these different recitations is attributed to many hadith. Malik Ibn Anas has reported:^[60]

Abd al-Rahman Ibn Abd al-Qari narrated: "Umar Ibn Khattab said before me: I heard Hisham Ibn Hakim Ibn Hizam reading Surah Furqan in a different way from the one I used to read it, and the Prophet (sws) himself had read out this surah to me. Consequently, as soon as I heard him, I wanted to get hold of him. However, I gave him respite until he had finished the prayer. Then I got hold of his cloak and dragged him to the Prophet (sws). I said to him: "I have heard this person [Hisham Ibn Hakim Ibn Hizam] reading Surah Furqan in a different way from the one you had read it out to me." The Prophet (sws) said: "Leave him alone [O 'Umar]." Then he said to Hisham: "Read [it]." [Umar said:] "He read it out in the same way as he had done before me." [At this,] the Prophet (sws) said: "It was revealed thus." Then the Prophet (sws) asked me to read it out. So I read it out. [At this], he said: "It was revealed thus; this Qur'ān has been revealed in Seven Ahruf. You can read it in any of them you find easy from among them.

Suyuti, a famous 15th century Islamic theologian, writes after interpreting above hadith in 40 different ways:^[61]

Many reports contradict presence of variant readings:^[62]

• Abu Abd al-Rahman al-Sulami reports, "the reading of Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Zayd ibn Thabit and that of all the Muhajirun and the Ansar was the same. They would read the Qur’ān according to the Qira'at al-'ammah. This is the same reading which was read out twice by the Prophet (sws) to Gabriel in the year of his death. Zayd ibn Thabit was also present in this reading [called] the 'Ardah-i akhirah. It was this very reading that he taught the Qur’ān to people till his death".^[63]
  • Ibn Sirin writes, "the reading on which the Qur’ān was read out to the prophet in the year of his death is the same according to which people are reading the Qur’ān today".^[64]

    Javed Ahmad Ghamidi also purports that there is only one recitation of Qur'ān, which is called Qira'at of Hafs or in classical scholarship, it is called Qira'at al-'ammah. The Qur'ān has also specified that it was revealed in the language of the prophet's tribe: the Quraysh.^{[Qur'an 19:97][Qur'an 44:58]})^[62]

    However, the identification of the recitation of Hafs as the Qira'at al-'ammah is somewhat problematic when that was the recitation of the people of Kufa in Iraq, and there is better reason to identify the recitation of the reciters of Madinah as the dominant recitation. The reciter of Madinah was Nafi' and Imam Malik remarked "The recitation of Nafi' is Sunnah." Moreover, the dialect of Arabic spoken by Quraysh and the Arabs of the Hijaz was known to have less use of the letter hamzah, as is the case in the recitation of Nafi', whereas in the Hafs recitation the hamzah is one of the very dominant features.^{[citation needed]}

    AZ [however] says that the people of El-Hijaz and Hudhayl, and the people of Makkah and Al-Madinah, to not pronounce hamzah [at all]: and 'Isa Ibn-'Omar says, Tamim pronounce hamzah, and the people of Al-Hijaz, in cases of necessity, [in poetry,] do so.^[65]

    So the hamzah is of the dialect of the Najd whose people came to comprise the dominant Arabic element in Kufa giving some features of their dialect to their recitation, whereas the recitation of Nafi' and the people of Madinah maintained some features of the dialect of Hijaz and the Quraysh.^{[citation needed]}

    However, the discussion of the priority of one or the other recitation is unnecessary since it is a consensus of knowledgable people that all of the seven recitations of the Qur’ān are acceptable and valid for recitation in the prayer.^{[citation needed]}

    Moreover, the so-called "un-canonical" recitations such as are narrated from some of the Companions and which do not conform to the Uthmani copy of the Qur’ān are not legitimate for recitation in the prayer, but knowledge of them can legitimately be used in the tafsir of the Qur’ān, not as a proof but as a valid argument for an explanation of an ayah.^{[citation needed]}

    Writing and printing

    Image:Large Koran.jpg

    Page from a Qur'ān ('Umar-i Aqta'). Iran, present-day Afghanistan, Timurid dynasty, circa 1400. Opaque watercolor, ink and gold on paper Muqaqqaq script. 170 x 109cm (66 15/16 x 42 15/16in.)Historical Region: Uzbekistan.

    Most Muslims today use printed editions of the Qur'ān. There are many editions, large and small, elaborate or plain, expensive or inexpensive. Bilingual forms with the Arabic on one side and a gloss into a more familiar language on the other are very popular.

    Qur'āns are produced in many different sizes. Most are of a reasonable book size, but there exist extremely large Qur'āns (usually for display purposes)^{[citation needed]} and very small Qur'āns (sometimes given as gifts).^{[citation needed]}

    Qur'āns were first printed from carved wooden blocks, one block per page. There are existing specimen of pages and blocks dating from the 10th century AD. Mass-produced less expensive versions of the Qur’ān were later produced by lithography, a technique for printing illustrations. Qur’āns so printed could reproduce the fine calligraphy of hand-made versions.^{[citations needed]}

    The oldest surviving Qur'ān for which movable type was used was printed in Venice in 1537/1538. It seems to have been prepared for sale in the Ottoman empire. Catherine the Great of Russia sponsored a printing of the Qur'ān in 1787. This was followed by editions from Kazan (1828), Persia (1833) and Istanbul (1877).^[66]

    It is extremely difficult to render the full Qur'ān, with all the points, in computer code, such as Unicode. The Internet Sacred Text Archive makes computer files of the Qur'ān freely available both as images^[67] and in a temporary Unicode version.^[68] Various designers and software firms have attempted to develop computer fonts that can adequately render the Qur'ān.^[69]

    Before printing was widely adopted, the Qur'ān was transmitted by copyists and calligraphers.^{[verification needed]} Since Muslim tradition felt that directly portraying sacred figures and events might lead to idolatry, it was considered wrong to decorate the Qur'ān with pictures (as was often done for Christian texts, for example). Muslims instead lavished love and care upon the sacred text itself. Arabic is written in many scripts, some of which are both complex and beautiful. Arabic calligraphy is a highly honored art, much like Chinese calligraphy. Muslims also decorated their Qur'āns with abstract figures (arabesques), colored inks, and gold leaf. Pages from some of these antique Qur'āns are displayed throughout this article.

    Some Muslims^{[attribution needed]} believe that it is not only acceptable, but commendable to decorate everyday objects with Qur’ānic verses, as daily reminders. Other Muslims^{[attribution needed]} feel that this is a misuse of Qur’ānic verses, because those who handle these objects will not have cleansed themselves properly and may use them without respect.

    Translations

    Main article: Qur'an translations

    Translation of the Qur’ān has always been a problematic and difficult issue. Since Muslims revere the Qur’ān as miraculous and inimitable (i'jaz al-Qur’ān),^{[citation needed]} they argue that the Qur’ānic text can not be reproduced in another language or form. Furthermore, an Arabic word may have a range of meanings depending on the context, making an accurate translation even more difficult.^[70]

    Nevertheless, the Qur'ān has been translated into most African, Asian and European languages.^[70] The first translator of the Qur'ān was Salman the Persian, who translated Fatihah into Persian during the 7th century.^[71] Islamic tradition holds that translations were made for Emperor Negus of Abyssinia and Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, as both received letters by Muhammad containing verses from the Qur’ān.^[70] In early centuries, the permissibility of translations was not an issue, but whether one could use translations in prayer.

    In 1936, translations in 102 languages were known.^[70]

    Robert of Ketton was the first person to translate the Qur'ān into a Western language, Latin, in 1143.^[72] Alexander Ross offered the first English version in 1649. In 1734, George Sale produced the first scholarly translation of the Qur'ān into English; another was produced by Richard Bell in 1937, and yet another by Arthur John Arberry in 1955. All these translators were non-Muslims. There have been numerous translations by Muslims; the most popular of these are by Dr. Muhammad Muhsin Khan and Dr. Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din al Hilali, Maulana Muhammad Ali, Abdullah Yusuf Ali, M. H. Shakir, Muhammad Asad and Marmaduke Pickthall.^{[citation needed]}

    The English translators have sometimes favored archaic English words and constructions over their more modern or conventional equivalents; for example, two widely-read translators, A. Yusuf Ali and M. Marmaduke Pickthall, use the plural and singular "ye" and "thou" instead of the more common "you." Another common stylistic decision has been to refrain from translating "Allah" — in Arabic, literally, "The God" — into the common English word "God." These choices may differ in more recent translations.^{[citation needed]}

    Levels of meaning

    Shias and Sufis as well as some Muslim philosophers believe the meaning of Quran doesn't restricted to literal aspect.^[73] Quran has inward Aspects as well as outward aspects. Henry Corbin narrates a hadith goes back to the Prophet:

    "The Quran possesses an external appearance and a hidden depth, an exoteric meaning and an esoteric meaning. This esoteric meaning in turn conceals an esoteric meaning (this depth possesses a depth, after the image of the celestial Spheres which are enclosed within each other). So it goes on for seven esoteric meanings (seven depths of hidden depth)."^[74]

    Commentaries dealing with the zahir(Outward) of the text are called tafsir, and hermeneutic and esoteric commentaries dealing with the batin are called ta'wil (“interpretation” or “explanation”), which involves taking the text back to its beginning. Esoteric commentators believe that the ultimate meaning of the Qur'an is known only to God.^[2]

    In contrast Qur'anic literalism which follows by Salafis and Zahiris is the belief that Qur'an should be taken at its apparent meaning, rather than employing any sort of interpretation. This includes, for example, the belief that Allah has appendages such as hands as stated in the Qur'an; this is generally explained by the concept of bi-la kaifa, the claim that the literal meanings should be accepted without asking how or why.

    Tafsir

    Main article: Tafsir

    The Qur'ān has sparked a huge body of commentary and explication, known as Tafsir. This commentary is aimed at explaining the "meanings of the Qur’ānic verses, clarifying their import and finding out their significance."^[75] and best tafseer is done by Allah himself.ولاياتونك بمثل الا جئناك بالحق واحسن تفسيرا

    Tafsir is one of the earliest academic activities of Muslims. According to the Qur’ān, Muhammad was the first person who described the meanings of verses for early Muslims.^[76] Other early exegetes included a few Companions of Muhammad, like Ali ibn Abi Talib, Abdullah ibn Abbas, Abdullah ibn Umar and Ubayy ibn Kab. Exegesis in those days was confined to the explanation of literary aspects of the verse, the background of its revelation and, occasionally, interpretation of one verse with the help of the other. If the verse was about a historical event, then sometimes a few traditions (hadith) of Muhammad were narrated to make its meaning clear.^[77]

    Because Qur'ān is spoken in the classical form of Arabic, many of the later converts to Islam, who happened to be mostly non-Arabs, did not always understand the Qur'ānic Arabic, they did not catch allusions that were clear to early Muslims fluent in Arabic and they were concerned with reconciling apparent conflict of themes in the Qur’ān. Commentators erudite in Arabic explained the allusions, and perhaps most importantly, explained which Qur’ānic verses had been revealed early in Muhammad's prophetic career, as being appropriate to the very earliest Muslim community, and which had been revealed later, canceling out or "abrogating" (nāsikh) the earlier text. Memories of the occasions of revelation (asbāb al-nuzūl), the circumstances under which Muhammad had spoken as he did, were also collected, as they were believed to explain some apparent obscurities.^{[citation needed]}

    Inward Aspects of the Qur’ān

    It's essential idea for Shia as well as Sufism that Qur’ān has inward aspects too^[78]. They refer to several Hadith of the Prophet such as

    "The Quran possesses an external appearance and a hidden depth, an exoteric meaning and an esoteric meaning. This esoteric meaning in turn conceals an esoteric meaning (this depth possesses a depth, after the image of the celestial Spheres which are enclosed within each other). So it goes on for seven esoteric meanings (seven depths of hidden depth)."^[79]

    According to this view it has also become evident that the inner meaning of the Qur’ān does not eradicate or invalidate its outward meaning. Rather, it is like the soul, which gives life to the body. ^[80]

    On the base of this viewpoint Henry Corbin considers Qur’ān have a part to play in Islamic philosophy, because gnosiology itself goes hand in hand with prophetology.^[81] However its clear that those who don't believe in Divine origin of Qur’ān or any kind of sacred or spiritual existence completely oppose any inward aspect for Qur’ān.

    Ta'wil

    See also: Esoteric interpretation of the Qur'an, Qura'nic hermeneutics, and Exegesis

    As Ja'far al-Kashfi has defined Ta'wil means to lead back or to bring back something to its origin or archetype is a science whose pivot is a spiritual direction and a divine inspiration, while the tafsir is the literal exegesis of the letter; its pivot is the canonical Islamic sciences.^[82] Allameh Tabatabaei says according to popular explanation among the later exegetes ta'wil indicates that particular meaning towards which the verse is directed. The meaning of revelation tanzil, as opposed to ta'wil, is clear or according to the obvious meaning of the words as they were revealed. But this explanation has become so wide spread that, at present, it has become the real meaning of at-ta'wil, while originally this word meant "to return" or "the returning place". In his view what has been rightly called ta'wil, or hermeneutic interpretation, of the Qur’ān is not concerned simply with the denotation of words. Rather, it is concerned with certain truths and realities that transcend the comprehension of the common run of men; yet it is from these truths and realities that the principles of doctrine and the practical injunctions of the Qur’ān issue forth. Interpretation is not the meaning of the verse; rather it transpires through that meaning - a special sort of transpiration. There is a spiritual reality which is the main objective of ordaining a law, or basic aim of describing a Divine Attribute; there is an actual significance to which a Qur’ānic story refers. ^[83][84]

    However Shia and Sufism on one hand and Sunni on the other hand have completely different positions on its legitimacy. There is a verse in Qur’ān^[85] which points out this issue, but Shia and Sunni disagree on how it should be read. According to Shia, those who are firmly rooted in knowledge like the Prophet and imams, know the secrets of Qur’ān, while Sunnis believe just God knows it. According to Allameh Tabatabaei "none knows its interpretation except Allah", remains valid, without any opposing or qualifying clause. Therefore, so far as this verse is concerned, the knowledge of the Qur’ān's interpretation is reserved for Allah. But he uses another verses and concludes those who are purified by God know the interpretation of the Qur’ān to a certain extent. ^[84]

    The most ancient spiritual commentary on the Quran consists of the teachings which the Shia Imams propounded in the course of their conversations with their disciples. It was the principles of their spiritual hermeneutics that were subsequently to be brought together by the Sufis. These texts are narrated from Imam Ali and Ja'far al-Sadiq by Shia and Sunni Sufis. ^[86]

    As Corbin narrates from Shia sources, Ali himself gives this testimony:

    Not a single verse of the Qur’ān descended upon (was revealed to) the Messenger of God which he did not proceed to dictate to me and make me recite. I would write it with my own hand, and he would instruct me as to its tafsir (the literal explanation) and the ta'wil (the spiritual exegesis), the nasikh (the verse which abrogates) and the mansukh (the abrogated verse), the muhkam and the mutashabih (the fixed and the ambiguous), the particular and the general...^[87]

    According to Allameh Tabatabaei, there are acceptable and unacceptable esoteric interpretation. The acceptable Ta'wil refers to the meaning of a verse beyond its literal meaning; rather only the implicit, whose ultimate meaning is known only to God and can't be comprehended directly through human thought alone. The verses in question here are those which refer to the human qualities of coming, going, sitting, satisfaction, anger and sorrow apparently attributed to God. On the other hand the unacceptable Ta'wil means "to transfer" the apparent meaning of a verse to a different meaning by means of a proof; this method is not without obvious inconsistencies. Although this view has gained considerable acceptance, it is incorrect and cannot be applied to the Qur’ānic verses. The correct interpretation is that reality to which a verse refers; it is found in all verses, the decisive and the ambiguous alike; it is not a sort of a meaning of the word; it is a real fact that is too sublime for words; Allah has dressed them with words so as to bring them a bit nearer to our minds; in this respect they are like proverbs that are used to create a picture in the mind and thus help the hearer to clearly grasp the intended idea. ^{[88] [84]}

    Therefor Sufi spiritual interpretations usually are accepted by Islamic scholars as authentic interpretations (tafsir) as long as certain conditions were met.^[89] In some cases in the history of Sufism, these interpretations were considered to be religious innovations (bid'ah) as Salafis believe today. ^[90] However even among Shia esoteric interpretation of Qur’ān is extremely controversial. For example when Ayatollah Ruhallah Khomeini, the leader of Islamic revolution, gave some lectures about Surat al-Fatiha in December 1979 and January 1980, some protests forced him suspend it before he could proceeded beyond the first two verses of the surah.^[91]

    Relationship with other literature

    The Torah and the Bible

    See also: Biblical narratives and the Qur'an and Tawrat

    The Qur'ān speaks well of the relationship it has with former books (the Torah and the Gospel) and attributes their similarities to their unique origin and saying all of them have been revealed by the one God.^[92]

    The Qur'ān retells stories of many of the people and events recounted in Jewish and Christian sacred books (Tanakh, Bible) and devotional literature (Apocrypha, Midrash), although it differs in many details. Adam, Enoch, Noah, Heber, Shelah, Abraham, Lot, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Job, Jethro, David, Solomon, Elijah, Elisha, Jonah, Aaron, Moses, Ezra, Zechariah, Jesus, and John the Baptist are mentioned in the Qur’ān as prophets of God (see Prophets of Islam). Muslims believe the common elements or resemblances between the Bible and other Jewish and Christian writings and Islamic dispensations is due to their common divine source, and that the original Christian or Jewish texts were authentic divine revelations given to prophets. According to the Qur'ān^{[Qur'an 3:3] Yusuf Ali},

    “

    It is He Who sent down to thee (step by step), in truth, the Book, confirming what went before it; and He sent down the Law (of Moses) and the Gospel (of Jesus) before this, as a guide to mankind, and He sent down the criterion (of judgment between right and wrong).

    ”

    ^[93] Muslims believe that those texts were neglected, corrupted (tahrif) or altered in time by the Jews and Christians and have been replaced by God's final and perfect revelation, which is the Qur'ān.^[94] However, many Jews and Christians^{[attribution needed]} believe that the historical biblical archaeological record refutes this assertion, because the Dead Sea Scrolls (the Tanakh and other Jewish writings which predate the origin of the Qur’ān) have been fully translated,^[95] validating the authenticity of the Greek Septuagint.^[96]

    Influence of Christian apocrypha‎

    The Diatessaron, Protoevangelium of James, Infancy Gospel of Thomas, Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew and the Arabic Infancy Gospel are all alleged to have been sources that the author/authors drew on when creating the Qur'ān.^[97] The Diatessaron especially may have led to the misconception in the Koran that the Christian Gospel is one text.^[98] However this is strongly refuted by Muslim scholars, who maintain that Qur’ān is the divine word of God without any interpolation, and the similarities exist only due to the one source.

    Arab writing

    After the Qur’ān, and the general rise of Islam, the Arabic alphabet developed rapidly into a beautiful and complex form of art.^[99]

    Wadad Kadi, Professor of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations at University of Chicago and Mustansir Mir, Professor of Islamic studies at Youngstown State University state that:^[100]

    Although Arabic, as a language and a literary tradition, was quite well developed by the time of Muhammad's prophetic activity, it was only after the emergence of Islam, with its founding scripture in Arabic, that the language reached its utmost capacity of expression, and the literature its highest point of complexity and sophistication. Indeed, it probably is no exaggeration to say that the Qur’ān was one of the most conspicuous forces in the making of classical and post-classical Arabic literature.

    The main areas in which the Qur’ān exerted noticeable influence on Arabic literature are diction and themes; other areas are related to the literary aspects of the Qur’ān particularly oaths (q.v.), metaphors, motifs, and symbols. As far as diction is concerned, one could say that Qur’ānic words, idioms, and expressions, especially "loaded" and formulaic phrases, appear in practically all genres of literature and in such abundance that it is simply impossible to compile a full record of them. For not only did the Qur’ān create an entirely new linguistic corpus to express its message, it also endowed old, pre-Islamic words with new meanings and it is these meanings that took root in the language and subsequently in the literature...

    Qur'an miracles

    Main article: Qur'an miracles

    Islamic scholars believe that the Qur’ān is miraculous by its very nature in being a revealed text and that similar texts cannot be written by human endeavor. Its miraculous nature is claimed to be evidenced by its literary style, suggested similarities between Qur’ānic verses and scientific facts discovered much later, and various prophecies. The Qur’ān itself challenges those who deny its claimed divine origin to produce a text like it. ^{[Qur'an 17:88][Qur'an 2:23][Qur'an 10:38]}.^{[101][102][103]} These claims originate directly from Islamic belief in its revealed nature, and are widely disputed by non-muslim scholars of Islamic history.^[104]

    Quranic Initials

    14 different Arabic letters, form 14 different sets of “Quranic Initials” (the "Muqatta'at", such as A.L.M. of 2:1), and prefix 29 suras in the Quran. The meaning and interpretation of these initials is considered unknown to most Muslims. In 1974, an Egyptian biochemist named Rashad Khalifa claimed to have discovered a mathematical code based on the number 19^[105], which is mentioned in Sura 74:30^[106] of the Quran.

    In culture

    Most Muslims treat paper copies of the Qur’ān with veneration, ritually washing before reading the Qur’ān.^[107] Worn out, torn, or errant (for example, pages out of order) Qur’āns are not discarded as wastepaper, but rather are left free to flow in a river, kept somewhere safe, burnt, or buried in a remote location. Many Muslims memorize at least some portion of the Qur’ān in the original Arabic, usually at least the verses needed to perform the prayers. Those who have memorized the entire Qur’ān earn the right to the title of Hafiz.^[108]

    Based on tradition and a literal interpretation of sura 56:77-79: "That this is indeed a Qur'ān Most Honourable, In a Book well-guarded, Which none shall touch but those who are clean.", many scholars opine that a Muslim perform wudu (ablution or a ritual cleansing with water) before touching a copy of the Qur'ān, or mushaf. This view has been contended by other scholars on the fact that, according to Arabic linguistic rules, this verse alludes to a fact and does not comprise an order. The literal translation thus reads as "That (this) is indeed a noble Qur'ān, In a Book kept hidden, Which none toucheth save the purified," (translated by Mohamed Marmaduke Pickthall). It is suggested based on this translation that performing ablution is not required.

    Qur'an desecration means insulting the Qur'ān by defiling or dismembering it. Muslims must always treat the book with reverence, and are forbidden, for instance, to pulp, recycle, or simply discard worn-out copies of the text. Respect for the written text of the Qur'ān is an important element of religious faith by many Muslims. They believe that intentionally insulting the Qur'ān is a form of blasphemy.

    Cyberspace

    The text of the Quran has become readily accessible over the internet, in Arabic as well as numerous translations in other languages. It can be downloaded and searched both word-by-word and with Boolean algebra. Photos of ancient manuscripts and illustrations of Quranic art can be witnessed. However, there are still limits to searching the Arabic text of the Quran.^[109]

    Criticism

    The Qur’ān's teachings on matters of war and peace have become topics of heated discussion in recent years. Some critics allege that some verses of the Qur’ān in their historical and literary context sanction military action against unbelievers as a whole both during the lifetime of Muhammad and after.^[110][111] In response to this criticism, some Muslims argue that such verses of the Qur’ān are taken out of context,^{[112][113][114]} and claim that when the verses are read in context it clearly appears that the Qur’ān prohibits aggression,^{[115][116][117]} and allows fighting only in self defense.^[118][119]

    Some critics reject the Muslim belief regarding the divine origin of the Qur’ān^{[120][121][122]}, and base their argument on the problems that they claim to exist in the Qur'ān, both textually and morally.^[123][124]

    See also

    Find more about Qur'an on Wikipedia's sister projects:
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    • Sura
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    • Persons related to Qur'anic verses
    • Hadith of the two weighty things
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    • There are also articles on each of the suras, or chapters, of the Qur'ān. Click on a chapter number to view the article.

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    Notes

    1. ^ pronounced [ qurˈʔaːn]
       Arabic pronunciation (help·info)
    2. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j} Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2007). "Qur’ān". Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-11-4. 
    3. ^ Qur'an 2:23-24
    4. ^ Qur'an 33:40
    5. ^ Watton, Victor, (1993), A student's approach to world religions:Islam, Hodder & Stoughton, pg 1. ISBN 0-340-58795-4
    6. ^ ^{a b} Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths, Mary Pat Fisher, 1997, page 338, I.B. Tauris Publishers.
    7. ^ ^{a b} Qur'an 17:106
    8. ^ Wild (2007), p.137
    9. ^ Qur'an 87:18-19
    10. ^ Qur'an 3:3
    11. ^ Qur'an 5:44
    12. ^ Qur'an 4:163
    13. ^ Qur'an 17:55
    14. ^ Qur'an 5:46
    15. ^ Qur'an 5:110
    16. ^ Qur'an 57:27
    17. ^ Qur'an 3:84
    18. ^ Qur'an 4:136
    19. ^ "The Qur’ān assumes the reader to be familiar with the traditions of the ancestors since the age of the Patriarchs, not necessarily in the version of the "Children of Israel" as described in the Bible but also in the version of the "Children of Ismail" as it was alive orally, though interspersed with polytheist elements, at the time of Muhammad. The term Jahiliya (ignorance) used for the pre-Islamic time does not mean that the Arabs were not familiar with their traditional roots but that their knowledge of ethical and spiritual values had been lost." Exegesis of Bible and Qur’ān, H. Krausen. http://www.geocities.com/athens/thebes/8206/hkrausen/exegesis.htm
    20. ^ See:
        • William Montgomery Watt in The Cambridge History of Islam, p.32
        • Richard Bell, William Montgomery Watt, Introduction to the Qur'an, p.51
        • F. E. Peters (1991), pp.3–5: "Few have failed to be convinced that … the Quran is … the words of Muhammad, perhaps even dictated by him after their recitation."
    21. ^ Sahih Bukhari 6:60:201
    22. ^ ^{a b} "Ķur'an, al-", Encyclopedia of Islam Online.
    23. ^ Qur'an 75:17
    24. ^ ^{[Qur'an 20:2]} cf.
    25. ^ Qur'an 25:32 cf.
    26. ^ Qur'an 7:204
    27. ^ See "Ķur'an, al-", Encyclopedia of Islam Online and ^{[Qur'an 9:111]}
    28. ^ According to Welch in the Encyclopedia of Islam, the verses pertaining to the usage of the word hikma "should probably be interpreted in the light of IV, 105, where it is said that "Muhammad is to judge (tahkum) mankind on the basis of the Book sent down to him."
    29. ^ Arabic: بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم, transliterated as: bismi-llāhi ar-raḥmāni ar-raḥīmi.</ ref> an Arabic phrase meaning ("In the name of God, Most Gracious, Most Merciful"), with the exception of the ninth chapter. There are, however, still 114 occurrences of the basmala in the Qur’ān, due to its presence in verse 27:30 as the opening of Solomon's letter to the Queen of Sheba. cf.  _Islam (Ctrl-click)">Encyclopedia of  Islam, "Kur`an, al-"
    30. ^ See:
        • "Kur`an, al-", Encyclopedia of Islam Online
        • Allen (2000) p. 53
    31. ^ Samuel Pepys: "One feels it difficult to see how any mortal ever could consider this Koran as a Book written in Heaven, too good for the Earth; as a well-written book, or indeed as a book at all; and not a bewildered rhapsody; written, so far as writing goes, as badly as almost any book ever was!" http://maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/display.php?table=review&id=21
    32. ^ "The final process of collection and codification of the Qur’ān text was guided by one over-arching principle: God's words must not in any way be distorted or sullied by human intervention. For this reason, no serious attempt, apparently, was made to edit the numerous revelations, organize them into thematic units, or present them in chronological order.... This has given rise in the past to a great deal of criticism by European and American scholars of Islam, who find the Qur’ān disorganized, repetitive, and very difficult to read." Approaches to the Asian Classics, Irene Blomm, William Theodore De Bary, Columbia University Press,1990, p. 65
    33. ^ Issa Boullata, "Literary Structure of Qur’ān," Encyclopedia of the Qur’ān, vol.3 p.192, 204
    34. ^ [1]
    35. ^ ^{a b} Michael Sells, Approaching the Qur’ān (White Cloud Press, 1999)
    36. ^ Norman O. Brown, "The Apocalypse of Islam." Social Text 3:8 (1983-1984)
    37. ^ Qur'ān, Chapter 2, Verses 23-24
    38. ^ Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths, Mary Pat Fisher, 1997, page 338, I.B. Tauris Publishers,
    39. ^ Qur'an, Chapter 17, Verse 106
    40. ^ Qur'an, Chapter 33, Verse 40
    41. ^ Watton, Victor, (1993), A student's approach to world religions:Islam, Hodder & Stoughton, pg 1. ISBN 0-340-58795-4
    42. ^ ^{[Qur'an 10:37]}
    43. ^ Wild (2007), p.137
    44. ^ Corbin (1993), p.12
    45. ^ Wild (1996), pp. 137, 138, 141 and 147
    46. ^ See:
        • ^{[Qur'an 2:97]}
        • ^{[Qur'an 17:105]}
    47. ^ Wild (1996), pp. 140
    48. ^ ^{[Qur'an 43:3]}
    49. ^ ^{[Qur'an 2:23]}
    50. ^ ^{a b c d} *Tabatabaee, 1988, chapter 5
    51. ^ See:
        • William Montgomery Watt in The Cambridge History of Islam, p.32
        • Richard Bell, William Montgomery Watt, Introduction to the Qur'an, p.51
    52. ^ Encyclopedia of Islam online, Muhammad article
    53. ^ See:
        • Observations on Early Qur'an Manuscripts in San'a
        • The Qur'an as Text, ed. Wild, Brill, 1996 ISBN 90-04-10344-9
    54. ^ ^{[Bukhari 6:60:201]}
    55. ^ Mohamad K. Yusuff, Zayd ibn Thabit and the Glorious Qur’ān
    56. ^ The Koran; A Very Short Introduction, Michael Cook. Oxford University Press, P.117 - P.124
    57. ^ *F. E. Peters (1991), pp.3–5: "Few have failed to be convinced that … the Quran is … the words of Muhammad, perhaps even dictated by him after their recitation."
    58. ^ Sonn, Tamara (2006), "Art and the Qur’ān", in Leaman, Oliver, The Qur’ān: an encyclopedia, Great Britain: Routeledge, pp. 71-81
    59. ^ Navid Kermani, Das ästhetische Erleben des Koran. Munich (1999)
    60. ^ Malik Ibn Anas, Muwatta, vol. 1 (Egypt: Dar Ahya al-Turath, n.d.), 201, (no. 473).
    61. ^ Suyuti, Tanwir al-Hawalik, 2nd ed. (Beirut: Dar al-Jayl, 1993), 199.
    62. ^ ^{a b} Javed Ahmad Ghamidi. Mizan, Principles of Understanding the Qur’ān, Al-Mawrid
    63. ^ Zarkashi, al-Burhan fi Ulum al-Qur'ān, 2nd ed., vol. 1 (Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 1980), 237.
    64. ^ Suyuti, al-Itqan fi Ulum al-Qur'ān, 2nd ed., vol. 1 (Baydar: Manshurat al-Radi, 1343 AH), 177.
    65. ^ E. W. Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon
    66. ^ The Qur’ān in Manuscript and Print. THE QUR’ĀNIC SCRIPT. Retrieved on 2007-06-05.
    67. ^ Article by A. Yusuf Ali. The Holy Qur’ān. Retrieved on 2007-06-05.
    68. ^ Unicode Qur’ān. Sacred-texts. Retrieved on 2007-06-05.
    69. ^ Mishafi Font. Award-winning calligraphic typeface. Retrieved on 2007-06-05.
    70. ^ ^{a b c d} Fatani, Afnan (2006), "Translation and the Qur’ān", in Leaman, Oliver, The Qur’ān: an encyclopedia, Great Britain: Routeledge, pp. 657-669
    71. ^ An-Nawawi, Al-Majmu', (Cairo, Matbacat at-'Tadamun n.d.), 380.
    72. ^ (2002) Islam: A Thousand Years of Faith and Power. New Haven: Yale University Press, p. 42. 
    73. ^ Corbin (1993), p.7
    74. ^ Corbin (1993), p.7
    75. ^ Preface of Al'-Mizan, reference is to Allameh Tabatabaei
    76. ^ Qur'an 2:151
    77. ^ [2]
    78. ^ Corbin (1993), p.7
    79. ^ Corbin (1993), p.7
    80. ^ Tabatabaee, Tafsir Al-Mizan
    81. ^ Corbin (1993), p.13
    82. ^ Corbin (1993), p.9
    83. ^ Tabatabee, Tafsir Al-Mizan, The Principles of Interpretation of the Qur’ān
    84. ^ ^{a b c} Tabatabee, Tafsir Al-Mizan, Topic: Decisive and Ambiguous verses and "ta'wil"
    85. ^ Qur'an 3:7
    86. ^ Corbin (1993), pp.7 and 8
    87. ^ Corbin (1993), p.46
        • ما نَزلت على رسول الله صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم آية من القرآن إلاّ أقرأنيها وأملاها عليَّ فكتبتها بخطي ، وعلمني تأويلها وتفسيرها، وناسخها ومنسوخها ، ومحكمها ومتشابهها ، وخاصّها وعامّها ، ودعا الله لي أن يعطيني فهمها وحفظها فما نسيتُ آية من كتاب الله تعالى ولا علماً أملاه عليَّ وكتبته منذ دعا الله لي بما دعا ، وما ترك رسول الله علماً علّمه الله من حلال ولا حرام ، ولا أمرٍ ولا نهي كان أو يكون.. إلاّ علّمنيه وحفظته، ولم أنسَ حرفاً واحداً منه
    88. ^ Tabatabaee (1988), pp. 37-45
    89. ^ Sufi Tafsir and Isma'ili Ta'wil
    90. ^ Manifest and Hidden Knowledge
    91. ^ Algar, Hamid (June 2003), The Fusion of the Gnostic and the Political in the Personality and Life of Imam Khomeini (R.A.)
    92. ^ ^{[Qur'an 2:285]}
    93. ^ ‏3:3 نزل عليك الكتاب بالحق مصدقا لما بين يديه وانزل التوراة والانجيل
    94. ^ Bernard Lewis, The Jews of Islam (1984). Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00807-8. p.69
    95. ^ The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible: The Oldest Known Bible Translated for the First Time into English (2002) HarperSanFrancisco. ISBN 0-06-060064-0
    96. ^ http://www.septuagint.net
    97. ^ New Catholic Encyclopaedia, 1967, The Catholic University of America, Washington D C, Vol. VII, p.677
    98. ^ On pre-Islamic Christian strophic poetical texts in the Koran, Ibn Rawandi, ISBN 1-57392-945-X
    99. ^ Leaman, Oliver (2006), "Cyberspace and the Quran", in Leaman, Oliver, The Qur’ān: an encyclopedia, Great Britain: Routeledge, pp. 130-135
    100. ^ Wadad Kadi and Mustansir Mir, Literature and the Qur’ān, Encyclopedia of the Qur’ān, vol. 3, pp. 213, 216
    101. ^ Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an - Miracles
    102. ^ Ahmad Dallal, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an, Quran and science
    103. ^ Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an - Byzantines
    104. ^ Harris, Sam (2005). The End of Faith. The Free Press. ISBN 978-0-7432-6809-7. 
    105. ^ Rashad Khalifa, Quran: Visual Presentation of the Miracle, Islamic Productions International, 1982. ISBN 0-934894-30-2
    106. ^ Qur'an 74:30 Prophecies Made in the Qur’ān that Have Already Come True]
    107. ^ Mahfouz (2006), p.35
    108. ^ Kugle (2006), p.47; Esposito (2000a), p.275
    109. ^ Rippin, Andrew (2006), "Cyberspace and the Quran", in Leaman, Oliver, The Qur’ān: an encyclopedia, Great Britain: Routeledge, pp. 159-163
    110. ^ Robert Spencer. Onward Muslim Soldiers, page 121.
    111. ^ Syed Kamran Mirza What is Islamic Terrorism and How could it be Defeated?
    112. ^ Ali, Maulana Muhammad; The Religion of Islam (6th Edition), Ch V "Jihad" Page 413. Published by The Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement [3]
    113. ^ Sohail H. Hashmi, David Miller, Boundaries and Justice: diverse ethical perspectives, Princeton University Press, p.197
    114. ^ Khaleel Muhammad, professor of religious studies at San Diego State University, states, regarding his discussion with the critic Robert Spencer, that "when I am told ... that Jihad only means war, or that I have to accept interpretations of the Quran that non-Muslims (with no good intentions or knowledge of Islam) seek to force upon me, I see a certain agendum developing: one that is based on hate, and I refuse to be part of such an intellectual crime." [4]
    115. ^ Ali, Maulana Muhammad; The Religion of Islam (6th Edition), Ch V "Jihad" Page 414 "When shall war cease". Published by The Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement [5]
    116. ^ Sadr-u-Din, Maulvi. "Quran and War", page 8. Published by The Muslim Book Society, Lahore, Pakistan. [6]
    117. ^ Article on Jihad by Dr. G. W. Leitner (founder of The Oriental Institute, UK) published in Asiatic Quarterly Review, 1886. ("jihad, even when explained as a righteous effort of waging war in self defense against the grossest outrage on one's religion, is strictly limited..")
    118. ^ The Quranic Commandments Regarding War/Jihad An English rendering of an Urdu article appearing in Basharat-e-Ahmadiyya Vol. I, p. 228-232, by Dr. Basharat Ahmad; published by the Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement for the Propagation of Islam
    119. ^ Ali, Maulana Muhammad; The Religion of Islam (6th Edition), Ch V "Jihad" Pages 411-413. Published by The Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement [7]
    120. ^ Koran, by Gabriel Oussani, The Catholic Encyclopedia, retrieved April 13, 2006
    121. ^ Patricia Crone, Michael Cook), and Gerd R. Puin as quoted in Toby Lester. "What Is the Koran?", The Atlantic Monthly, January 1999. 
    122. ^ Jewish Encyclpoedia: comp. also xvi. 70
    123. ^ The Encyclopedia of Religion, By Mircea Eliade. Volum 12 pg. 165-6, pub. 1987 ISBN 0-02-909700-2
    124. ^ Robert Spencer. Onward Muslim Soldiers,

    
    

    References

    • Allen, Roger (2000). An Introduction to Arabic literature. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521776570. 
    • Corbin, Henry (1993 (original French 1964)). History of Islamic Philosophy, Translated by Liadain Sherrard, Philip Sherrard. London; Kegan Paul International in association with Islamic Publications for The Institute of Ismaili Studies. ISBN 0710304161. 
    • Esposito, John; Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad (2000). Muslims on the Americanization Path?. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513526-1. 
    • Esposito, John (2002). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515713-3. 
    • Kugle, Scott Alan (2006). Rebel Between Spirit And Law: Ahmad Zarruq, Sainthood, And Authority in Islam. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0253347114. 
    • Mahfouz, Tarek (2006). Speak Arabic Instantly. Lulu Press, Inc.. ISBN 1847289002. 
    • Molloy, Michael (2006). Experiencing the World's Religions, 4th, McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0073535647. 
    • Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2007). "Qur’ān". Encyclopedia Britannica Online.  
    • Peters, F. E. (1991). "The Quest for Historical Muhammad". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 
    • Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn. Tafsir al-Mizan. 
    • Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn (1988). The Qur’ān in Islam: Its Impact and Influence on the Life of Muslims. Routledge. ISBN 0710302665. 
    • Wild, Stefan (1996). The Quʼran as Text. Brill. ISBN 9004093001. 

    Further reading

    

    Wikisource has original text related to this article:

    The Holy Qur'an

    Translations

    • Al Quran English Translation - 3 translations & commentary of Surah with recitation
    • Interactive Authenticated Quran Translations & Recitations in English Also available in Urdu, Indonesian, Malay, Turkish, French and Dutch
    • Read Quran Online - Specialized site for easy reading of Quran online with English & Arabic views, page themes, and ability to customize font styling.
    • Quran in English, Urdu, French, Spanish and German - English versions include translations by Dr. M. Mohsin Khan, Yusuf Ali and Pickthal.
    • Quran - The Knazul Iman - English Version translated from the Original by Imam Ahmed Raza Khan, a Sunni Islamic Scholar.
    • English Translation and Explanation of Quran, Maariful Quran by Mufti Taqi Usmani, Prof. Shamim (Tafsir by Mufti Maulana Muhammad Shafi Usmani RA)
    • GlobalQuran.com over 30 different languages of translation and search in all of them at once, also be able add Quran on your site/blog.
    • The Qur’ān at USC-MSA - three translations (Yusuf Ali, Shakir, and Pickthal). Also, Abul Ala Maududi's chapter introductions to the Qur’ān.
    • The Qur’ān at the Internet Sacred Text Archive
    • Islam Awakened - ayat-by-ayat transliteration and parallel translations from eleven prominent translators.
    • Quran Translation and Phonetic Search Translations in English, French, German, Japanese, Russian and Portuguese with English and Phonetic Search
    • IslamiCity Qur’ān search
    • Qur'ān Search or browse the English Shakir translation
    • Qur'ān Verses in Chronological Order
    • Text In Motion, concordance searchable by root or by grammatical form.

    Older commentary

    • al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir -- Jami' al-bayān `an ta'wil al-Qur'ān, Cairo 1955-69, transl. J. Cooper (ed.), The Commentary on the Qur’ān, Oxford University Press, 1987. ISBN 0-19-920142-0
    • Tafsir Ibn-Kathir, Hafiz Imad al-din Abu al-Fida Ismail ibn Kathir al-Damishqi al-Shafi'i - (died 774 Hijrah (Islamic Calendar))
    • Tafsir Al-Qurtubi (Al-Jami'li-Ahkam), Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Ahmad Abi Bakr ibn Farah al-Qurtubi - (died 671 Hijrah (Islamic Calendar))

    Older scholarship

    • Nöldeke, Theodor -- Geschichte des Qorâns, Göttingen, 1860.

    Recent scholarship

    • Al-Azami, M. M. -- The History of the Qur’ānic Text from Revelation to Compilation, UK Islamic Academy: Leicester 2003.
    • Gunter Luling A challenge to Islam for reformation: the rediscovery and reliable reconstruction of a comprehensive pre-Islamic Christian hymnal hidden in the Koran under earliest Islamic reinterpretations. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers 2003. (580 Seiten, lieferbar per Seepost). ISBN 81-2081952-7
    • Luxenberg, Christoph (2004) -- The Syro-Aramaic Reading Of The Koran: a contribution to the decoding of the language of the Qur’ān, Berlin, Verlag Hans Schiler, 1 May 2007 ISBN 3-89930-088-2
    • McAuliffe, Jane Damen -- Quranic Christians : An Analysis of Classical and Modern Exegesis, Cambridge University Press, 1991. ISBN 0-521-36470-1
    • McAuliffe, Jane Damen (ed.) -- Encyclopaedia of the Qur’ān, Brill, 2002-2004.
    • Puin, Gerd R. -- "Observations on Early Qur’ān Manuscripts in Sana'a," in The Qur’ān as Text, ed. Stefan Wild, , E.J. Brill 1996, pp. 107-111 (as reprinted in What the Koran Really Says, ed. Ibn Warraq, Prometheus Books, 2002)
    • Rahman, Fazlur -- Major Themes in the Qur’ān, Bibliotheca Islamica, 1989. ISBN 0-88297-046-1
    • Louay M. Safi -- Quranic Themes
    • Robinson, Neal, Discovering the Qur’ān, Georgetown University Press, 2002. ISBN 1-58901-024-8
    • Sells, Michael, -- Approaching the Qur’ān: The Early Revelations, White Cloud Press, Book & CD edition (November 15, 1999). ISBN 1-883991-26-9
    • Stowasser, Barbara Freyer -- Women in the Qur’ān, Traditions, and Interpretation, Oxford University Press; Reprint edition (June 1, 1996), ISBN 0-19-511148-6
    • Wansbrough, John -- Quranic Studies, Oxford University Press, 1977
    • Watt, W. M., and R. Bell, Introduction to the Qur’ān, Edinburgh University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-7486-0597-5

    External links

    Three translations of the Quran from the University of Southern California Precise Quran Text (Uthmani and Simple Script) Translation of the Meanings of The Noble Quran in 10 languages Quran Explorer, Interactive Audio Translations Listen Live to Quran http://www.quranic.org/ Quran Search searchquran.org - A very quick Quran search engine with 10+ translations An online Qur’ān browser Quran Arabic & English translation of the Quran to English side by side to the Arabic source. Free Koran Request Form - ordering free Koran. Online Arabic-English Qur'an Searchable by Triliteral Root Manuscripts Islamic Awareness, The Qur’ānic Manuscripts Qur'ān Manuscripts Qur'ānic Art of Calligraphy

    Audio/Video/Documentary Video's on different topics from Quran Listen to Quran Quran Academy: Audio/Video commentary/translation of the Qur'ān Several Quran Tafseers in English and Arabic Videos of recitation, commentary, or prayer English Reading Reciter.org Video's Quran QuranChannel.com - A Collection of Quran playlists and radio channels English Quran, French, karaoke audio mode for Arabic. Quran Onlinelisten Online Quran Or download in mp3 format. Encyclopedic articles Quran an article by Seyyed Hossein Nasr on Encyclopedia Britannica Online

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