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The Tupolev Tu-154 (NATO reporting name: Careless) is a Soviet medium-range trijet airliner, similar to the Boeing 727 and of particularly rugged design. It remains the standard airliner for domestic routes in Russia and other states of the former Soviet Union and to a lesser extent in eastern Europe and Iran. The mainstay of Russian airlines for several decades, the Tu-154 has carried about half of all passengers flown by Aeroflot and its subsidiaries, or approximately 137 million passengers per year, and has been exported and operated by at least 17 foreign airlines. Designed to cope with unpaved and gravel airfields, the plane often operates in extreme Arctic conditions and although production has ceased, there have been requests for resumption of assembly. Despite a heavy and durable airframe capable of very long service life, the Tu-154 sometimes approaches Mach 1 speeds and is the fastest passenger jet in operation.[citation needed]
Design and development
The Tu-154 was developed to meet the Aeroflot requirement for a new aircraft to replace the jet-powered Tu-104, plus the Antonov An-10 'Ukraine' and Ilyushin Il-18 turboprops. It competed against the Ilyushin Il-74. The Soviet Ministry of Aircraft Industry picked the Tu-154 because it incorporated the latest in Soviet aircraft design and best met Aeroflot's anticipated requirements of the 1970s and 1980s. The aircraft was to transport a payload of 16 to 18 tons (35,270 to 39,680 lb) over a distance of 2,850 - 4,000 km (1,770 - 2,480 mi) while cruising at a speed of 900 km/h, or a payload of 5.8 tons (12,790 lb) over a distance of 5,800 - 7,000 km (3,600 - 4,350 mi) while cruising at 850 km/h (528 mph). It also had to be able to operate from airfields as short as 2,600 m (8,530 ft) at maximum take-off weight.[2]
The first project chief was Sergey M. Yerger. In 1964 Dimitriy S. Markov assumed that position. In 1975 he turned it over to Aleksandr S. Shengardt.[3]
Major design features
- 3 engines
- powerful high lift devices such as leading edge slats, triple-slotted flaps, and spoilers
- for the first time in Soviet aircraft design, a high level of reserve was built into all systems, thereby increasing its safety
- for the first time on any Soviet airliner, irreversible hydraulic actuators on all three control channels
- six wheel main landing gear, which assisted with braking and deceleration
- for the first time in the Tupolev Design Bureau's history, there was an auxiliary power unit for engine starting and to supply power to the aircraft while on the ground
- another first for the Tupolev Design Bureau was a primary electric system that used stable frequency AC power, with two generators connected in parallel for greater reliability.
- reverse thrusters that can safely be deployed in-flight.
- an automated flight control system that allowed automated piloting under all conditions, including automated landing. [4]
The Tu-154 first flew on October 4, 1968. Commercial service began in February 1972, and production ended in 2006.[1]
In 1988 a modified Tu-154 (dubbed Tu-155 and Tu-156) successfully flew on liquid hydrogen and in 1989 on liquified natural gas used as a fuel in its engines.
Design features
The Tu-154 is powered by three rear-mounted low-bypass turbofan engines arranged similarly to those of the Boeing 727, and is slightly larger than its American counterpart. The original model had Kuznetsov NK-8-2, while the Tu-154M has Soloviev D-30KU-154s. All Tu-154 aircraft models have a higher thrust-to-weight ratio than that of the 727 – this gives them superior performance, although at the expense of poorer fuel efficiency, which became an important factor in later decades as fuel costs grew.
The cabin of the Tu-154, although of the same six-abreast seating layout, gives the impression of an oval interior, with a lower ceiling than is common on western airliners (Boeing or Airbus). The passenger doors are also smaller than on the Tu-154's western counterparts. Furthermore, luggage space in the overhead compartments is very limited.
Like the Tupolev Tu-134, the Tu-154 has a wing swept back at 35 degrees at the quarter-chord line. The British Hawker Siddeley Trident has the same sweepback angle, while the Boeing 727 has a slightly smaller sweepback angle of 32 degrees.
Like many other Soviet-built airliners, the Tu-154 has an oversized landing gear enabling it to land on unpaved runways, once common in rural areas of the Soviet Union. The aircraft has two six-wheel main bogies fitted with large low-pressure tyres which retract into pods extending from the trailing edges of the wings (a common Tupolev feature), plus a two-wheel nose gear unit. Soft oleo struts (shock absorbers) provide much smoother ride on the bumpy airfields than Western airliners, which only very rarely operate on such poor surfaces.
The passenger cabin accommodates 128 passengers in two-class layout and 164 passengers in single-class layout, and up to 180 passengers in high-density layout. The layout can be modified to what is called a winterized version where some seats are taken out and a wardrobe is installed for passenger coats.
Although the original requirement was to have a 3 man flight crew (as opposed to 4 or 5 man crew on other Soviet airliners), and the plane actually can be flown with a crew of 3 - the Captain, First Officer and Flight Engineer, the fourth crew member - the Navigator - is usually present, at least in the former Soviet Union, due to the complexity of plane's navigation system.
The plane's avionics suite, for the first time in the Soviet Union, is built to Western airworthiness standards and includes an NVU-B3 doppler navigation system, a triple autopilot, which provides an automatic ILS approach according to ICAO category II weather minima, an autothrottle, a Doppler drift and speed measure system (DISS), "Kurs-MP" radio navigation suite and others. Modern upgrades normally include a TCAS, GPS and other modern systems, mostly Western-made.
The earlier versions of Tu-154 cannot be modified to meet the current Stage III noise regulations, and therefore are banned to fly in Europe and other regions, where such regulations are in force. The Tu-154M, however, can be hushkitted to meet the Stage III regulations. Theoretically, it can be hushkitted to meet the formal Stage IV noise regulations. However, as the current European Union directives prohibit to hush kit aircraft to meet Stage IV noise levels, it is unlikely that Tu-154 may continue operate with Stage IV regulations in force.
About 900 of Tu-154s have been built, 500 of which are still in service.
Variants
Many variants of this airliner have been built. Apart from the normal differences between weights and powerplants, the Tu-154 was produced in variants which used exotic fuels. Like its western counterpart, the 727, many of the Tu-154s in service have been hush-kitted, and some converted to freighters.
- Tu-154
- Tu-154 production started in 1970, while first passenger flight was performed at February 9, 1972. Powered by Kuznetsov NK-8-2 turbofans, it carried 164 passengers. About 42 were built. Tail numbers from 85006 to 85055.
- Tu-154A
- The first upgraded version of the original Tu-154, the A model, in production since 1974, added centre-section fuel tanks and more emergency exits, while engines were upgraded to higher-thrust Kuznetsov NK-8-2U. Other upgrades include automatic flaps/slats and stabilizer controls and modified avionics. Max. take-off weight - 94,000 kg. There were 15 different interior layouts for the different domestic and international customers of the airplane, seating between 144 and 152 passengers. The easiest way to tell the A model from the base model is the spike at the junction of the fin and tail is a fat bullet on the A model rather than a slender spike on the base model.[5] Tail numbers from 85056 to 85119.
- Tu-154B
- As the original Tu-154 and Tu-154A suffered wing cracks after only a few years in service, a version with a new, stronger wing, designated Tu-154B, went into production in 1975. It also had an extra fuel tank in fuselage, extra emergency exits in the tail, and the maximum take-off weight grew to 98 tonnes. Also important to Aeroflot was that the increased passenger capacity led to lower operating costs. As long as the airplane had the NK-8-2U engines the only way to improve the economics of the airplane was to spread costs across more seats. [6] The autopilot was certified for ICAO Category II automatic approaches. Most previously built Tu-154 and Tu-154A were also modified into this variant, with the replacement of the wing. Max. take-off weight increased to 96,000 kg. 111 were built. Tail numbers ran from 85120 to 85225.
- Tu-154B-1
- Aeroflot wanted this version for increased revenue on domestic routes. It carried 160 passengers. This version also had some minor modifications to fuel system, avionics, air conditioning, landing gear. 64 were built from 1977-1978. Tail numbers from 85226 to 85294.
- Tu-154B-2
- A minor modernization of Tu-154B-1. The airplane was designed to be converted from the 160 passener version to a 180 passenger version by removing the galley.[7] The procedure took about two and a half hours. Some of the earlier Tu-154B modified to that standard. Max. take-off weight increased to 98,000 kg, later to 100,000 kg. 311 aircraft were built, including VIP versions. Tail numbers (new-built) from 85295 to 85605.
- Tu-154S
- The Tu-154S is an all-cargo or freighter version of the Tu-154B, using a strengthened floor, and adding a forward cargo door on the port side of the fuselage. The airplane could carry 9 Soviet PAV-3 pallets. Max. payload - 20,000 kg. There were plans for 20 aircraft, but only nine aircraft were converted; two from Tu-154 model and seven from Tu-154B model. Trials were held in the early 1980's and the aircraft was authorized regular operations in 1984. By 1997 all had been retired. Tail numbers: 85019 (Tu-154), 85037 (Tu-154), 85060, 85062, 85063, 85067, 85081, 85084, 85086.[8]
- Tu-154M
- The Tu-154M is the deeply upgraded version, which first flew in 1982 and entered mass production in 1984. It uses more fuel-efficient Soloviev D-30KU-154 turbofans. Together with significant aerodynamic refinement, this led to much lower fuel consumption and therefore longer range, as well as lower operating costs. The aircraft has new double-slotted (instead of tripple-slotted) flaps, with an extra 36-degree position (in addition to existing 15, 28 and 45-degree positions on older versions), which allows reduction of noise on approach. It also has a relocated auxiliary power unit and numerous other improvements. Manufacture continued through 2006. Max. take-off weight increased first to 100,000 kg, then to 102,000 kg. Some aircraft are certified to 104,000 kg. Tail numbers are 85616 (prototype), production aircraft from 85606 and on (except 85804, which is re-imported Tu-154B-2). About 320 were manufactured. Production ended in 2006. No new airframes have been built since the early 1990s, and production since then has involved assembling airplanes from components on hand.[9]
- Tu-154M-LK-1
- Cosmonaut Trainer. This was a Salon VIP aircraft modified to train cosmonauts to fly the Buran reusable spacecraft, the Soviet equivalent of the US Space Shuttle. The Tu-154 was used because the Buran required a steep descent, and the Tu-154 was capable of replicating that. The cabin featured trainee work-stations, one of which was the same as the Buran's flightdeck. The forward baggage compartment was converted into a camera bay, because the aircraft was also used to train cosmonauts in observation and photographic techniques. [10]
- Tu-154M-ON Monitoring Aircraft
- Germany modified one of the Tu-154's it had on hand from the former East German Air Force into an observation airplane. This airplane was involved with the Open Skies inspection flights. It was converted at the Elbe Aircraft Plant (Elbe Flugzeugwerke) at Dresden-Klotzsche, and flew in 1996. After two dozen monitoring missions, it was lost in a mid-air collision in 1997.[11]
- The Russians also converted a Tu-154M to serve as an Open Skies Monitoring aircraft. They used the Tu-154M-LK-1, and converted it to a Tu-154M-ON. When the aircraft is not flying over North America, it is used to ferry cosmonauts around. [12] The Chinese are also believed to have converted one Tu-154 to an electronic countermeasures aircraft.[13]
- Tu-154M-100
- Design of this variant started in 1994, but the first aircraft were not delivered until 1998. It is an upgraded version with western avionics, including the Flight Management Computer, GPS, EGPWS, TCAS, and other modern systems. The airplane could carry up to 157 passengers. The cabin featured an automatic oxygen system and larger overhead bins. Only three were produced, as payment of debts owed by Russia to Slovakia. Three aircraft were delivered in 1998 to Slovak Airlines, and sold back to Russia in 2003.[14]
- Tu-155 / Tu-156
- Two prototypes based on this aircraft are the hydrogen- or natural gas-powered Tu-155 and Tu-156. The Tu-155 used first hydrogen, then later liqued natural gas (LNG), as fuel for its starboard engine. Its maiden flight was on April 15th, 1988.[15] It flew until 1992 and was placed in storage. The Tu-156 never made it past the mock-up stage. All three engines were to burn either hydrogen or natural gas. Cryogenics technology is used to store the liquid fuel in the Tu-155 and Tu-156.
Incidents
There have been 62 serious flight incidents with TU-154s, including 36 crashes with human fatalities. Six of those incidents have resulted from terrorist or military shootdowns and several from poor runway conditions, including one which struck snow ploughs left on the runway. Others incidents have resulted from mechanical problems, piloting errors, and faulty air traffic control.
- On February 8, 1993, an Iran Air Tours Tupolev Tu-154 was departing on a non-scheduled flight from Mehrabad International Airport, Tehran, to Khoram Dareh when it was involved in a midair collision with an Iranian Air Force Sukhoi Su-24 that was on approach to the same airport. All twelve crew members and 119 passengers were killed.[16]
- On July 4, 2000, MALÉV Hungarian Airlines Flight 262, a chartered Tu-154 landed on its belly in Thessaloniki, Greece. The crew forgot to extend the landing gear and the plane skidded 400 metres (440 yards) on the runway. Thanks to the robust build of the airplane and the high position of the engines, the plane became airborne as the pilots applied throttle. The plane then flew around and landed on its wheels.[17] There were no injuries, but it was deemed uneconomical to repair the aircraft for circa $2m.
- On October 4, 2001, Siberia Airlines Flight 1812 from Tel Aviv to Novosibirsk crashed into the Black Sea after being accidentally shot down by an Ukrainian surface to air missile. All 66 passengers and 12 crew were killed.
- February 12, 2002; Iran Air Tours Flight 956: The aircraft hit high ground in the Sefid Kouh mountains outside Khorramabad, Iran with adverse rain, snow and dense fog at the time of the crash, while descending for Khorramabad. All twelve crew members and 107 passengers were killed.[18]
- July 1, 2002; Bashkirian Airlines Flight 2937 collided with a DHL Boeing 757 aircraft in 2002. [19] The accident was caused by problems with the air traffic control system in Zurich and erroneous instructions given by the air traffic controller on duty (who had to control the whole aerospace over Lake Constance alone (!) at that time and day).
- On August 24, 2004 Sibir Airlines Flight 1047 from Moscow to Sochi crashed after being exploded by a Chechen suicide bomber, killing all 46 people on board. This happened almost simultaneously with a similar bomb explosion on Volga-Aviaexpress airlines TU-134 flight from Moscow to Volgograd.
- On August 22, 2006, while en route from the Russian Black Sea resort of Anapa to St. Petersburg, Pulkovo Airlines Flight 612 crashed near the Russian border over eastern Ukraine in an attempt to fly through a weather front. All 160 passengers (including 45 children) and 10 crew were killed.
- On September 1 2006, Iran Air Tours Flight 945 skidded off the runway as it was landing in Mashhad and caught fire. A tire had blown on the aircraft during landing. The aircraft was carrying 147 passengers, 29 of them died. Mashhad, located 620 miles northeast of Tehran, is visited by some 12 million people annually on pilgrimage to its Shiite Islamic shrines.
- On 26 September 2006, an Altyn Air aircraft taking off at Bishkek, bound for Moscow with 52 passengers and 9 crew on board, lost part of its wing in a collision with a USAF Boeing KC-135 tanker. The aircraft was able to make a safe landing with about 2.5m of wing missing.[20]
Operators
Civil operators
In August 2006 a total of 435 Tupolev Tu-154 aircraft (all variants) remained in airline service. Major operators include: Iran Air Tours (12), Aeroflot-Don (10), Aeroflot (26), Azerbaijan Airlines (10), BAL Bashkirian Airlines (6), Belavia (17), Dalavia (8), Moskovia Airlines (6), Kavminvodyavia (10), Kogalymavia (7), KrasAir (15), Kyrgyzstan Airlines (10), Alrosa Mirny Air Enterprise (6), Rossiya (7), S7 Airlines (31), Samara Airlines (8), Tajik Air (9), Ural Airlines (16), UTair Aviation (16), Uzbekistan Airways (13), Vladivostok Air (12) and Yakutia Airlines (12). Some 55 other airlines operate smaller numbers of the type.[20]
Past and present operators: Abakan Air Enterprise, Abakan Avia, Aerocom, Aeroflot, Aeroflot-Don, Aeroflot-Nord, Aerokuznetsk, Aeronica, Aeroservice Kazakhstan, Aerotrans, Aerovolga, Air Georgia, Air Great Wall, Air Koryo, Airlines 400, Air Moldova, Air Savari, Air Transport Europe, Air Ukraine, Air Via, Air Volga, AJT, Albanian Airlines, Alak, Amur Avia, Aria Air, Ariana, Armenian Airlines, Asian Star, Atlant, Atlant-Soyuz Airlines, Atyrau Airways, Aviaenergo,Aviaprad, Aviaprima, Avial, Avioimpex, AVL Arkhangel, Azerbaijan Airlines, Baikal Airlines, Bulgaria Air, Baltic Express, Barnaul Air, Bashkirian Airlines, Belavia, BH Air, Bratsk Air, Bulgarian Air Charter, CAAC, Caspian Airlines, Chelal, Chernomoravia, China Glory, China Northwest, China Southwest, China United, China Xingjiang, Chita Avia, Continental Airways, CSA, Cubana, Daallo, Diamond Sakha, East Line, Elk Estonian, Enkor, Georgia Air Prague, Gomel UAD, Hemus Air, Imair, Interflug, Iran Air Tours, Iron Dragonfly, Kaliningradavia, Khabarovsk Aero, Kish Air, KrasAir, KMV, Kuban Airlines, Kyrgyzstan Airlines, Latpass, Libyan Arab Airlines, LOT Polish Airlines, Macedonia Airservice, Mahan Air, Malév Hungarian Airlines, Mavial Magadan Airlines, Moscow Airways, Murmansk Air, Nizhny Novgorod Air, Odessa Airlines, Omskavia, Orbi Georgian, Orenburg Airlines, Pakistan International Airlines, Perm Airlines, Polet Airlines, Pulkovo Aviation Enterprise, Russian Sky, Sakha Avia, Samara Airlines, Samarkand, Shaheen Air, Sibaviatrans, Sibir, Sichuan Airlines, Slovak Airlines, Spair, Surgut Avia, Syrianair, Taban Airlines, Tajikistan Airlines, Tarom, Tatarstan Airlines, Tavria, Tesis, Tomsk Air, Transair Georgia, Transeuropean, Turanair, Turkmenistan, Tyumen airlines, Ulyanovsk Airlines, Ural Airlines, UTair Aviation, Uzbekistan Airways, Vietnam Airlines, Vitair, Vladivostok Air, Vnukovo, Yakutia Airlines, Yamal Airlines, Yuzhnaya.
Military operators
- The NATO reporting name of the Tu-154 is Careless.[21]
Current
Polish military VIP transport Tu-154M aircraft from the 36th Special Air Transport Regiment, at Warsaw
Former
Specifications (Tu-154B-2)
General characteristics
- Crew: 3-4
- Capacity: 114-180 passengers
- Length: 48.0 m (157 ft)
- Wingspan: 37.55 m (123 ft 3 in)
- Height: 11.40 m (37 ft 5 in)
- Wing area: 201.5 m² (2,168 ft²)
- Empty weight: 50,700 kg (111,920 lb)
- Max takeoff weight: 98,000 - 100,000 kg (216,335 - 220,750 lb)
- Powerplant: 3× Kuznetsov NK-8-2U turbofans, 103 kN (23,148 lbf)[22] each
Performance
- Maximum speed: 950 km/h (510 kn, 590 mph)
- Range:
- With maximum payload: 2,500 km (3,500 km with 164 passengers & baggage) (1,350 NM, 1,554 mi)
- With maximum fuel: 5,280 km (2,850 NM, 3,281 mi))
- Service ceiling 12,100 m (39,700 ft)
Specifications (Tu-154M)
General characteristics
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