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The United States presidential election of 2000 was a hard-fought contest between Democratic candidate Al Gore, then Vice President, and Republican candidate George W. Bush, governor of Texas and son of a former president. Bush narrowly won the November 7 election, with 271 electoral votes to Gore's 266. There were many important issues at play in the election, but more attention is usually paid to the election itself, which featured a controversy over who won Florida's 25 electoral votes, the recount process in that state, and the issue of the popular vote.
In the American system of presidential elections, the electoral vote system determines the winner, and Bush won this count, although Gore received more popular votes.
It was the third time in American history that a candidate won the vote in the Electoral College without receiving a plurality of the popular vote; it also happened in the elections of 1876 and 1888. In 1824 John Quincy Adams received a plurality in neither the popular vote nor the electoral college vote and was selected President by the U.S. House of Representatives.
Nominations
Democratic Party nomination
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- Democratic Party candidates
Senator Bill Bradley (D-NJ).jpg
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Numerous candidates for the Democratic nomination tested the waters, but only two serious candidates entered the contest, Vice President Al Gore of Tennessee and former Senator Bill Bradley of New Jersey. Only Minnesota Senator Paul Wellstone formed an exploratory committee[1].
Gore had a strong base as the incumbent Vice President; Bradley received some endorsements but was not the candidate of a major faction or coalition of blocs. Running an insurgency campaign, Bradley positioned himself as the alternative to Gore, who was a founding member of the centrist Democratic Leadership Council. While former basketball star Michael Jordan campaigned for him in the early primary states, Bradley announced his intention to campaign "in a different way" by conducting a positive campaign of "big ideas." He made the spending of the record-breaking budget surplus on a variety of social welfare programs to help the poor and the middle-class one of his central issues, along with campaign finance reform and gun control.
Gore easily defeated Bradley in the primaries, largely because of the support given to Gore by the Democratic Party establishment and Bradley's poor showing in the Iowa caucus, where Gore successfully painted Bradley as aloof and indifferent to the plight of farmers in rural America. The closest Bradley came to a victory was his 50–46 loss to Gore in the New Hampshire primary.
None of Bradley's delegates were allowed to vote for him so Gore won unanimously. Connecticut Senator Joe Lieberman was nominated for Vice President by voice vote. Lieberman became the first Jewish American ever to be chosen for this position by a major party and many political commentators cited him as a "bold choice" for Vice President.
Gore, as incumbent V.P., was supported by Clinton and despite Bradley's challenge was a safe front-runner. But some other prominent Democrats were mentioned as possible contenders, such as Nebraska Senator Bob Kerrey[2], Missouri Congressman Dick Gephardt, Minnesota Senator Paul Wellstone, and famous actor and director Warren Beatty,[3] who declined to run.
Potential vice-presidential candidates
- Senator John Kerry of Massachusetts[4]
- Senator Bob Graham of Florida[5]
- Senator Tom Harkin of Iowa[6]
- Senator Evan Bayh of Indiana[7][8]
- House Minority Leader Dick Gephardt of Missouri[9]
- Governor Jeanne Shaheen of New Hampshire[10]
- Senator Zell Miller of Georgia[11]
- Senator Bob Kerrey of Nebraska[12]
- Senator Diane Feinstein of California[13]
- Secretary of Energy Bill Richardson of New Mexico[14]
- Former Senator Bill Bradley of New Jersey[15]
Republican Party nomination
- Further information: 2000 Republican National Convention
- Republican Party candidates
Lamar Alexander official portrait.jpg
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Elizabeth Dole official photo.jpg
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Orrin Hatch, official 110th Congress photo.jpg
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Potential candidates who chose not to run
(Buchanan dropped out to run for the Reform Party nomination. Buchanan would later become the Reform Party's nominee)
(Smith dropped out of the Republican primary, denounced the Republican party, and sought nomination as a U.S. Taxpayers Party candidate. He then withdrew his candidacy for the UTP nomination and ran as an independent)
Following Bob Dole's loss to Bill Clinton in the 1996 election, George W. Bush became the frontrunner, acquiring unprecedented funding and a broad base of leadership support, based on his governorship of Texas and the name-recognition and connections of the Bush family. Buchanan and Trump dropped out to run for the Reform Party nomination. Several aspirants withdrew before the Iowa Caucus, unable to secure funding and endorsements sufficient to remain competitive with Bush. These included Alexander, Dole, Kasich, Quayle, and Smith. Steve Forbes, who could self-finance, did compete in the early contests, but did not do as well as he had in 1996. By late February, Bauer, Forbes, and Hatch had all dropped out. That left Bush, McCain, and Keyes as the only candidates still in the race.
Bush, the governor of Texas, the second-largest state in the Union, the son of a former president, and the favored candidate of the Christian right, was portrayed in the media as the establishment candidate. McCain, with the support of many moderate Republicans and Independents, portrayed himself as a crusading insurgent who focused on campaign reform.
McCain won a 48%-30% victory over Bush in the New Hampshire primary and seized the attention of the media. In the South Carolina primary, however, Bush soundly defeated McCain. Some credited Bush's win to the fact that it was the first major primary in which only registered Republicans could vote, which negated McCain's strong advantage among independents. Some McCain supporters blamed it on a campaign of dirty tricks such as push polling, including the false suggestion that McCain fathered an African-American child out of wedlock, perpetrated against McCain by his political enemies. Whatever the real reason, McCain's loss in South Carolina stopped his momentum cold. Although McCain won a few additional primaries, Bush took the majority and handily won the nomination at the Republican National Convention in Philadelphia.
The tally was as follows:
McCain finally endorsed Bush, and gave a strong speech at the convention.
Vice Presidential candidates
Governor Bush told former Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney to head up a commission to help select a running mate for him, but ultimately, Bush asked Cheney himself to be his running mate, and Cheney was nominated by voice vote. While the US Constitution does not specifically disallow a president and a vice-president from the same state, it does prohibit members of the electoral college from casting both of their votes for persons from the same state. Accordingly, Cheney—who had been a resident of Texas for nearly 10 years—changed his voting registration back to Wyoming. Had Cheney not done this, either he or Governor Bush would have forfeited their electoral votes from the Texas electors, a situation which—given the eventual razor-thin margin of victory for the Republicans that year—would have almost certainly resulted in Democratic Vice-President Lieberman serving under a Republican President Bush.
Other mentioned candidates[16]:
Notable endorsements
Note: Some of the endorsers switched positions.
George W. Bush
- Senate Majority Leader Trent Lott of Mississippi[17]
- Former HUD Secretary and 1996 V.P. nominee Jack Kemp of New York[18]
- Senator Robert C. Smith of New Hampshire[19]
- Former Governor and White House Chief of Staff John H. Sununu of New Hampshire[20]
- Governor Jane Dee Hull of Arizona[21]
- Governor John Engler of Michigan
- Senator John Warner of Virginia[22]
- Governor Jim Gilmore of Virginia[23]
- Senator John Ashcroft of Missouri[24]
- Governor Paul Cellucci of Massachusetts[25]
- Governor Tommy Thompson of Wisconsin[26]
- Representative John Thune of South Dakota[27]
John McCain
- Senator Jon Kyl of Arizona[28]
- Senator Fred Thompson of Tennessee[29]
- Senator Mike DeWine of Ohio[30]
- Senator Chuck Hagel of Nebraska[31]
- Representative Lindsey Graham of South Carolina[32]
- Representative Mark Sanford of South Carolina[33]
- Representative Peter T. King of New York[34]
- Staten Island Borough President Guy V. Molinari[35]
Steve Forbes
- Representative Roscoe G. Bartlett of Maryland[36]
- Ohio Secretary of State Ken Blackwell[37]
Alan Keyes
- Representative Tom Coburn of Oklahoma[38]
Orrin Hatch
- Senator Bob Bennett of Utah[39]
Lamar Alexander
- Governor Mike Huckabee of Arkansas[40]
- Former Governor Terry Branstad of Iowa[41]
Dan Quayle
- Former Governor Carroll Campbell of South Carolina[42]
John Kasich
- Mike DeWine (initially)[43]
- Senator George Voinovich of Ohio[44]
- Representative John Boehner of Ohio[45]
Reform Party nomination
- Reform Party candidates
- John B. Anderson of Florida, former U.S. Representative for the 16th Congressional District of Illinois, former Independent Presidential candidate
- David L. Boren of Oklahoma, former U.S. Senator
- Patrick J. Buchanan of Virginia, former speechwriter and Senior Advisor to President Richard Nixon
- Charles E. Collins of Georgia, former school board chairman from a rural Florida county
- John Hagelin of Iowa, Ph.D., past and then-current Natural Law Party candidate
- Ron Paul of Texas, U.S. Representative
- Ross Perot of Texas, 1996 presidential nominee
- Donald Trump of New York, billionaire real estate developer
- Jesse Ventura of Minnesota, Governor
- Lowell P. Weicker Jr. of Connecticut, former Governor
The nomination went to Pat Buchanan and runningmate Ezola Foster of California, over the objections of party-founder H. Ross Perot and despite a rump convention nomination of John Hagelin by the Perot faction (see Other nominations below). In the end, the Federal Election Commission sided with Buchanan, and that ticket appeared on 49 of 51 possible ballots.
Green Party nomination
The nomination went to Ralph Nader of Connecticut and Winona LaDuke of Minnesota, at the Green Party's National Nominating Convention in Denver, Colorado [2]. The Green Party appeared on 44 of 51 ballots.
Libertarian Party nomination
The Libertarian Party's National Nominating Convention nominated Harry Browne of Tennessee and Art Olivier of California for Vice President. Browne was nominated on the first ballot and Olivier received the Vice Presidential nomination on the second ballot [4]. The Libertarian Party appeared on 50 of 51 ballots.
Constitution Party nomination
The nomination went to Howard Phillips of Virginia and Curtis Frazier of Missouri. The Constitution Party was on the ballot in 41 states.
Natural Law Party nomination
The Natural Law Party was on 38 ballots.
The general election campaign
In the campaign, Bush criticized the Clinton administration policy in Somalia, where 18 Americans died in 1993 trying to sort out warring factions, and in the Balkans, where United States peacekeeping troops perform a variety of functions. "I don't think our troops ought to be used for what's called nation-building". Bush said in the second presidential debate.[46] Ralph Nader was the most successful of third-party candidates, drawing 2.74% of the popular vote. His campaign was marked by a traveling tour of "super-rallies"; large rallies held in sports arenas like Madison Square Garden, with retired talk show host Phil Donahue as master of ceremonies. After initially ignoring Nader, the Gore campaign made a big publicity pitch to (potential) Nader supporters in the final weeks of the campaign, downplaying Gore's differences with Nader on the issues and claiming that Gore's ideas were more similar to Nader's than Bush's were, noting that Gore had a better chance of winning than Nader. On the other side, the Republican Leadership Council ran pro-Nader ads in a few states in an effort to split the "left" vote.[47] In the aftermath of the campaign, many Gore supporters claimed that many of Nader's voters would have supported Gore, thus siphoning off enough would-be Gore votes to throw the election to Bush.
The sharpest differences among partisan groups came on the topic of morality. Already by 1992, Republicans were campaigning much more vigorously and vociferously than Democrats or independents on "hot button" social issues concerning what some proclaimed as the moral decay of society, in the form of permissive attitudes toward sex, abortion, gays and lesbians, and secularism. The difference grew larger by 2000, especially if one adds together the moral decay category and the category having to do with corruption and scandals in Washington. Morality was mentioned most frequently by Republicans as the "single most important problem" facing the nation.[48] Therefore during his campaign Bush frequently referred to restoring moral integrity not only to the White House but to the nation as a whole. Gore on the other hand studiously avoided the Clinton scandals, as did Lieberman, even though Lieberman had been the first Democratic senator to denounce Clinton's misbehavior. Gore avoided appearing with Clinton, who was shunted to low visibility appearances in areas where he was still popular.
The election
As the returns came in on election night (November 7), it became clear that the presidential election was unusually close. Both Governor Bush and Vice President Gore had won roughly 48% of the national vote. With the exception of Florida, Bush carried the Southern states by comfortable margins and also secured wins in Ohio, Indiana, most of the rural Midwestern farming states, and most of the Rocky Mountain states. Gore balanced Bush by sweeping the Northeastern United States (with the sole exception of New Hampshire), most of the Upper Midwest, and the Pacific Coast states, including Washington, Oregon, and California. As the night wore on it became clear that while a handful of small-to-medium sized states were extremely close, it was the State of Florida that would decide the winner of the election. As the final national results were tallied the following morning, Bush had clearly won a total of 246 electoral votes, while Gore had clearly won 255 votes (270 votes were needed to win). Two smaller states - New Mexico (5 electoral votes) and Oregon (7 electoral votes) - were still too close to call. It was Florida (25 electoral votes), however, that the news media focused their attention on. Mathematically, Florida's 25 electoral votes became the key to an election win for both candidates, and although both New Mexico and Oregon were declared in favor of Gore over the next few days, Florida's statewide vote took center stage even as the state's winner would ultimately win the election. The outcome of the election was not known for more than a month after the balloting ended because of the extended process of counting and then recounting Florida's presidential ballots.
Florida
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At approximately 7:50 pm EST on election day, 10 minutes before the polls closed in the largely Republican Florida panhandle, some television news networks declared that Gore had carried Florida's 25 electoral votes. They based this prediction substantially on exit polls. However, in the actual vote tally Bush began to take a wide lead early in Florida, and by 10 pm EST the networks had retracted their prediction of a Gore victory and placed Florida back into the "undecided" column. At approximately 2:30 am, with some 85% of the votes counted in Florida and Bush leading Gore by more than 100,000 votes, the networks declared that Bush had carried Florida and had, therefore, been elected President. However, most of the remaining votes to be counted in Florida were located in three heavily Democratic counties - Broward, Miami-Dade, and Palm Beach - and as their votes were reported Gore began to gain on Bush. By 4:30 am, after all votes were counted, Gore had narrowed Bush's margin to just over 2,000 votes, and the networks retracted their predictions that Bush had won Florida and the Presidency. Gore, who had privately conceded the election to Bush, now withdrew his concession and announced that he would wait for a recount in Florida before any further action. After the first recount by the morning of Wednesday, November 8 Bush's margin in Florida had dwindled to about 500 votes, narrow enough to trigger a mandatory recount in that state. In addition, Gore asked for hand recounts in four counties (Broward, Miami Dade, Palm Beach, and Volusia), as provided under Florida state law. This set into motion a series of recounts (portions by machine, and portions by hand), questions about portions of the Florida vote, and finally lawsuits.
These ultimately resulted in a December 12 7-2 United States Supreme Court decision that the Florida Supreme Court's scheme for recounting ballots was unconstitutional, as well as a 5-4 United States Supreme Court decision that ended the Florida recounts and allowed Florida to certify its vote. The vote was certified by Katherine Harris, the Republican Secretary of State who had been the Florida co-chair of Bush's campaign[49]. Because Bush's younger brother, Jeb Bush, was the governor of Florida, there were allegations that Harris and Bush had somehow manipulated the election to favor the governor's brother.[50][51] Bush's margin of victory in Florida was officially placed at 537 votes (out of more than 5.8 million cast), making it the closest presidential election in the history of the state. The nine members of the Supreme Court voted along ideological lines in the split decision with the two usually conservative swing voters[52] (Justices O'Connor and Kennedy) siding with the three conservatives (Chief Justice Rehnquist and Justices Scalia, and Thomas) outvoting the Court's four liberals (Justices Ginsburg, Souter, Stevens, and Breyer). Due to all of these factors, the 2000 presidential campaign has become one of the most controversial, and disputed, elections in American history.
Post recount
After Florida was decided, Texas Governor George W. Bush became President-elect and began forming his transition committee. In a speech on December 13, Bush claimed he was reaching across party lines to bridge a divided America, stating that "the President of the United States is the President of every single American, of every race, and every background."[53]
On January 6, 2001, a joint-session of Congress met to certify the electoral vote. Twenty members of the House of Representatives, most of them Democratic members of the Congressional Black Caucus, rose one-by-one to file objections to the electoral votes of Florida. However, according to an 1877 law, any such objection had to be sponsored by both a representative and a senator. No senator would co-sponsor these objections, deferring to the Supreme Court's ruling. Therefore, Gore, who was presiding in his capacity as President of the Senate, ruled each of these objections out of order.
Bush subsequently became the President-elect after the electoral votes from all 50 states and the District of Columbia were certified by the joint session of Congress. Bush took the oath of office on January 20, 2001.
In the aftermath of the election, independent recounts were conducted by The Miami Herald and USA Today, concluding that Bush would have won in all legally requested recount scenarios, but that a statewide recount under the most generous standards would have given Gore a narrow victory. This count considered only "undervotes" where no vote is detected by machine, and did not consider "overvotes", such as when a voter marks a ballot for the same candidate using both the labeled space or punch-out and via the write-in space. [54]
Additionally, The Media Consortium hired the National Opinion Research Center to examine 175,010 ballots that were never counted in Florida. [5] The investigation took 8 months and cost $900,000.[citation needed] Their results showed that the winning candidate varied based on the method used to include or interpret ballots.[55] For cases where all of their examiners agreed, the nine different recount scenarios resulted in Bush prevailing four times, and Gore prevailing in the other five. Ironically enough, under the recount rules initially requested by Gore, Bush would have won, and under the rules requested by Bush, Gore would have won.
National results
Though Gore came in second in the electoral vote, he received 543,816 more individual votes than Bush. Gore failed to win the popular vote in his home state, Tennessee, which both he and his father had represented in the Senate. Had he won Tennessee, he could have won the election without Florida. Gore was the first major-party presidential candidate to have lost his home state since George McGovern lost South Dakota in 1972.
| Presidential Candidate |
Party |
Home State |
Popular Vote |
Electoral
Vote |
Running Mate |
Running Mate's
Home State |
RM's Electoral
Vote |
| Count |
Pct |
| George W. Bush |
Republican |
Texas |
50,460,110 |
47.9% |
271 |
Dick Cheney |
Wyoming |
271 |
| Al Gore |
Democratic |
Tennessee |
51,003,926 |
48.4% |
266 |
Joe Lieberman |
Connecticut |
266 |
| (abstention) (a) |
— |
— |
— |
— |
1 |
(abstention) (a) |
— |
1 |
| Ralph Nader |
Green |
Connecticut |
2,883,105 |
2.7% |
0 |
Winona LaDuke |
Minnesota |
0 |
| Pat Buchanan |
Reform |
Virginia |
449,225 |
0.4% |
0 |
Ezola B. Foster |
California |
0 |
| Harry Browne |
Libertarian |
Tennessee |
384,516 |
0.4% |
0 |
Art Olivier |
California |
0 |
| Howard Phillips |
Constitution |
Virginia |
98,022 |
0.1% |
0 |
Curtis Frazier |
Missouri |
0 |
| John Hagelin |
Natural Law/Reform |
Iowa |
83,702 |
0.1% |
0 |
Nat Goldhaber |
California |
0 |
| Other(b) |
54,652 |
0.1% |
– |
Other(b) |
– |
| Total |
105,417,258 |
100 % |
538 |
|
538 |
| Needed to win |
270 |
|
270 |
Source (Popular Vote): Leip, David. 2000 Presidential Election Results. Dave Leip's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections (August 7, 2005).
Source (Electoral Vote): 2000 Electoral Vote Totals. Official website of the National Archives. (August 7, 2005).
(a) One faithless elector from the District of Columbia, Barbara Lett-Simmons, abstained from voting in protest of the District's lack of voting representation in United States Congress. (D.C. has a non-voting delegate to Congress.) She had been expected to vote for Gore/Lieberman.
(b) Candidates receiving less than 1/2000 of the total popular vote.
- See also: United States presidential election, 2000 (detail)
State results
- See also: United States presidential election, 2000 (detail)
Close states are listed below:
States where margin of victory < 10%:
- Florida, <0.0092%
- New Mexico, 0.06%
- Wisconsin, 0.22%
- Iowa, 0.31%
- Oregon, 0.44%
- New Hampshire, 1.27%
- Minnesota, 2.40%
- Missouri, 3.34%
- Ohio, 3.51%
- Nevada, 3.55%
- Tennessee, 3.86%
- Pennsylvania, 4.17%
- Maine, 5.12%
- Michigan, 5.13%
- Washington, 5.57%
- Arkansas, 5.45%
- Arizona, 6.28%
- West Virginia, 6.33%
- Louisiana, 7.67%
- Virginia, 8.03%
- Colorado, 8.36%
Aftermath
Voting machines
Since the Presidential Election was so close in Florida, the United States Government and state governments pushed for election reform to be prepared by the 2004 United States Presidential Election. Many of Florida's year 2000 election night problems stemmed from usability and ballot design factors with voting systems, including the potentially confusing "butterfly ballot." Many voters had difficulties with the paper based punch card voting machines and were either unable to understand the required process for voting or unable to perform the process. This resulted in an unusual amount of over votes (voting for more candidates than is allowed) and under votes (voting for less than the maximum candidates, including none at all). Many undervotes were potentially caused by either voter error or errors with the punch card paper ballots resulting in hanging, dimpled, or pregnant chads.
A proposed solution to these problems was the installation of modern electronic voting machines. The United States Presidential Election of 2000 spurred the debate about election and voting reform, but it did not end it.
Exit polling and declaration of vote winners
The Voter News Service's reputation was badly tarnished by its treatment of Florida's presidential vote in 2000. Breaking its own guidelines, VNS called the state as a win for Gore 12 minutes before polls closed in much of the state. Although much of the state is in the Eastern Time Zone, at the time VNS called the state for Gore, the Florida panhandle, which is in the Central Time Zone, had not yet closed their polls. More seriously, inconsistent polling results caused the VNS to change its call twice, first from Gore to Bush, and then to "too close to call". A subsequent attempt by VNS to use computer tallying during the 2002 congressional election was also a failure, and the VNS was disbanded.
More consequences
In the aftermath of the election, the Help America Vote Act (HAVA) was passed to help states upgrade their election technology in the hopes of preventing similar problems in future elections. Ironically, the electronic voting systems which many states purchased in order to comply with HAVA actually caused problems in the following presidential election of 2004.
Democrats blamed third party candidate Ralph Nader for taking the election away from Gore. Nader received some 97,000 votes in Florida. According to the Washington Post, exit polls there showed that "47 percent of Nader voters would have gone for Gore if it had been a two-man race, and only 21 percent for Bush," which would have given Gore a margin of some 24,000 votes over Bush.[56] Some Democrats claim that had Nader not run, Gore would have won both New Hampshire and Florida and won the election with 296 electoral votes. (He only needed one of the two to win.) Defenders of Nader, including Dan Perkins, argued that the margin in Florida was small enough that Democrats could blame any number of third-party candidates for the defeat, including "Workers World Party" candidate Monica Moorehead, who received 1,500 votes.[57] Nader's reputation was still hurt by this perception, and may have hindered his future goals as an activist. For example, Mother Jones wrote, "For evidence of how rank-and-file liberals have turned against Nader, one need look no further than the empire he created. Public Citizen, the organization (Nader) founded in 1971, has a new fundraising problem—its founder. After the election, contributions dropped... When people inquire about Nader's relationship to the organization, Public Citizen sends out a letter that begins with a startling new disclaimer: 'Although Ralph Nader was our founder, he has not held an official position in the organization since 1980 and does not serve on the board. Public Citizen—and the other groups that Mr. Nader founded–act independently.'"[58]
State ballot measures
Voters in California approved Proposition 36, which mandated probation and rehabilitation for those convicted of nonviolent drug offenses, by a margin of 60.8% to 30.2%. Californians also approved Proposition 39, lowering the voter approval requirement from a two-thirds majority to 55% for bonding for school projects, by a 53.3% to 46.7% margin.[59]
By a margin of 65% to 35%, Connecticut voters approved Measure 1, which amended the state's constitution to eliminate the state's county sheriffs. Subsequent legislation established the State Marshals Service to assume the duties performed by the county sheriffs.[60]
See also
References
- ^ http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1998/04/08/wellstone/index.html
- ^ http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/stories/1998/12/13/kerrey/
- ^ York, Anthony (Sep. 2, 1999) "Life of the Party?" Salon News.
- ^ http://archives.cnn.com/2000/ALLPOLITICS/stories/08/07/gore.lieberman/index.html
- ^ http://archives.cnn.com/2000/ALLPOLITICS/stories/08/07/gore.lieberman/index.html
- ^ http://archives.cnn.com/2000/ALLPOLITICS/stories/08/07/gore.lieberman/index.html
- ^ http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/features/1999/9907.starr.campaign.html
- ^ http://archives.cnn.com/2000/ALLPOLITICS/stories/08/07/gore.lieberman/index.html
- ^ http://archives.cnn.com/2000/ALLPOLITICS/stories/08/07/gore.lieberman/index.html
- ^ http://archives.cnn.com/2000/ALLPOLITICS/stories/08/07/gore.lieberman/index.html
- ^ http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/features/1999/9907.starr.campaign.html
- ^ http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/features/1999/9907.starr.campaign.html
- ^ http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/features/1999/9907.starr.campaign.html
- ^ http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/features/1999/9907.starr.campaign.html
- ^ http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/features/1999/9907.starr.campaign.html
- ^ http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/features/1999/9907.starr.campaign.html
- ^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=32218
- ^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=55218
- ^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=32108
- ^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=32108
- ^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=32081
- ^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=34624
- ^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=34624
- ^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=32448
- ^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=32187
- ^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=34642
- ^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=34611
- ^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=32081
- ^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=34613
- ^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=32482
- ^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=32462
- ^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=34610
- ^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=34610
- ^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/CandidateDetail.html?CandidateID=1964
- ^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/CandidateDetail.html?CandidateID=15104
- ^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/CandidateDetail.html?CandidateID=1202
- ^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/CandidateDetail.html?CandidateID=3696
- ^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=32484
- ^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=55218
- ^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=55218
- ^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=55218
- ^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=55218
- ^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=55218
- ^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=55218
- ^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=55218
- ^ The Second Gore-Bush Presidential Debate. 2000 Debate Transcript. Commission on Presidential Debates (2004). Retrieved on October 21, 2005.
- ^ Meckler, Laura (Oct. 27, 2000) "GOP Group to Air Pro-Nader TV Ads." Washington Post.
- ^ [Miller and Klobucar 2003]
- ^ Katherine Harris, W Files, CBS NEWS
- ^ Pallast, Gregory (April 29, 2004) "Vanishing Votes." The Nation.
- ^ Taper, Jake (November 13,2000) "The Woman Under Fire." Salon.
- ^ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy#Ideology
- ^ http://www.cnn.com/ELECTION/2000/transcripts/121300/bush.html
- ^ http://www.pbs.org/newshour/media/media_watch/jan-june01/recount_4-3.html
- ^ Table 11 in Reliability of the Uncertified Ballots in the 2000 Presidential Election in Florida at http://www2.norc.org/fl/articles.asp --be warned that this document is over 50 mgs to download although it is only 14 pages long
- ^ http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A45950-2000Nov8?language=
- ^ http://archive.salon.com/comics/tomo/2000/11/13/tomo/index.html
- ^ Margolis, John (July/August 2001) Nader Unrepentant. Mother Jones.
- ^ [http://www.smartvoter.org/2000/11/07/ca/state/prop/39/ Proposition 39 School Facilities. 55% Local Vote. Bonds, Taxes Accountability Requirements.]
- ^ Secretary of the State of Connecticut, VOTE FOR PROPOSED CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENT
Books
- Brinkley, Douglas (2001). 36 Days: The Complete Chronicle of the 2000 Presidential Election Crisis. Times Books. ISBN 0-8050-6850-3.
- (2002) in Steed, Robert P. (ed.): The 2000 Presidential Election in the South: Partisanship and Southern Party Systems in the 21st Century.
- (2004) in de La Garza, Rodolfo O. (ed.): Muted Voices: Latinos and the 2000 Elections. ISBN 0-7425-3590-8.
- Abramson, Paul R.; Rohde, David W.; Aldrich, John Herbert (2002). Change and Continuity in the 2000 Elections. ISBN 1-56802-740-0.
- Bugliosi, Vincent (2001). The Betrayal of America: How the Supreme Court Undermined the Constitution and Chose Our President. Thunder's Mouth Press. ISBN 1-56025-355-X.
- Corrado, Anthony; et al. (2001). Election of 2000: Reports and Interpretations. Chatham House Publishers.
- Denton, Robert E., Jr. (2002). The 2000 Presidential Campaign: A Communication Perspective. Praeger.
- Dershowitz, Alan M. (2001). Supreme Injustice: How the High Court Hijacked Election 2000. ISBN 0-19-514827-4.
- Dover, E. D. (2002). Missed Opportunity: Gore, Incumbency, and Television in Election 2000. ISBN 0-275-97638-6.
- Dougherty, John E. (2001). Election 2000: How the Military Vote Was Suppressed. ISBN 978-1589390652.
- Gillman, H. (2001). The Votes That Counted: How the Court Decided the 2000 Presidential Election. ISBN 0-226-29408-0.
- Jacobson, Arthur J.; Rosenfeld, Michel (2002). The Longest Night: Polemics and Perspectives on Election 2000.
- Palast, Greg (2002). The Best Democracy Money Can Buy. Pluto Press. ISBN 0-7453-1846-0.
- Posner, Richard A. (2001). Breaking the Deadlock: The 2000 Election, the Constitution, and the Courts. ISBN 0-691-09073-4.
- Rakove, Jack N. (2002). The Unfinished Election of 2000. ISBN 0-465-06837-5.
- Sabato, Larry J. (2001). Overtime! The Election 2000 Thriller. ISBN 0-321-10028-X.
- Sammon, Bill (2001). At Any Cost: How Al Gore Tried to Steal the Election. Regnery Publishing, Inc.. ISBN 0-89526-227-4.
- Toobin, Jeffrey (2001). Too Close To Call: The Thirty-Six-Day Battle to Decide the 2000 Election. Random House. ISBN 0-375-50708-6.
Journal articles
- Miller, Arthur H.; Thomas F. Klobucar (2003). "The Role of Issues in the 2000 U.S. Presidential Election". Presidential Studies Quarterly 33 (1): 101+.
- Wattenberg, Martin P. (1999). "The Democrats' Decline in the House during the Clinton Presidency: An Analysis of Partisan Swings". Presidential Studies Quarterly 29.
- Wattier, Mark J. (2004). "The Clinton Factor: The Effects of Clinton's Personal Image in 2000 Presidential Primaries and in the General Election". White House Studies 4.
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